跳转到内容

注意缺陷多动障碍

本页使用了标题或全文手工转换
维基百科，自由的百科全书
“过动症”重定向至此。关于膀胱的疾病，请见“膀胱过动症”。
维基百科中的医学内容仅供参考，并不能视作专业意见。如需获取医疗帮助或意见，请咨询专业人士。详见医学声明。
注意力不足过动症（ADHD）
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
又称注意力缺失症、注意力缺陷过动症、过度活跃症、hyperkinetic disorder (ICD-10)
注意力不足过动症的常见症状
注意力不足过动症的常见症状
症状容易分心（英语：attentional shift）（难以把专注力放对地方）、过度的活动、 难以控制行为和冲动[1][2]
起病年龄6 - 12岁左右[3][4]
病程多于6个月[3]
类型特殊性发育障碍、多动障碍[*]、疾病、神经发育障碍
病因遗传因素（遗传、新生变异（英语：De novo mutation）），较小程度是环境因素（怀孕期间接触生物危害、创伤性脑损伤）
诊断方法根据症状并排除其他可能的致病原因。[1]
鉴别诊断品行障碍、对立反抗症、学习障碍、躁郁症[5]、自闭症光谱、睡眠障碍[6]、焦虑症[6]、忧郁症[6]
治疗心理治疗、改变生活方式、药物[1]
药物中枢神经刺激剂、阿托莫西汀、胍法辛[7][8]
患病率5,110万（2015年）[9]
分类和外部资源
医学专科精神医学、儿童与青少年精神医学
ICD-116A05
ICD-10F90.0
OMIM143465、​608903、​608904、​608905、​608906、​612311、​612312
DiseasesDB6158
MedlinePluswillem
eMedicine289350、​912633
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
“ADHD”的各地常用译名
中国大陆注意缺陷多动障碍
台湾注意力不足过动症
香港专注力失调/过度活跃症
澳门专注力失调/过度活跃症
日本注意欠陥・多动性障害
大韩民国注意力缺乏过多行动障碍
注意力缺乏 过剩行动 症候群
越南𦇒乱增动减注意

注意力不足过动症（英语：attention deficit hyperactivity disorder，缩写为ADHD），是一种神经发展障碍[10][11]。主要表现为难以专注、过度活跃、做事不考虑后果等。除此之外，还存在不合年纪的行为且存在注意力缺失问题的患者也可能表现出情绪调节困难或执行功能方面的问题[1][12]。对于诊断来说，症状应在患者12岁之前出现、持续超过六个月、至少发生于两种情境下（如学校、家中、休闲活动等）[3][4]。儿童患者注意力不集中的问题可能导致学习成绩不佳[1]，此外，此病症也跟其他心智障碍或药物滥用有关[13]。虽然此病症（特别是在现代社会中）会造成一些“障碍”，但很多过动症者会对他们感兴趣或认为有价值的任务保持持续的专注，此状况被称为过度专注[14][15]。

尽管此病症在小孩与青年的范围中被大量的研究以及诊断，多数的例子中，仍然找不到精确的病因，他们认为基因的原因占了75%，在怀孕期间尼古丁的接触也可能是一个导致病因的外部风险，似乎跟自律以及家庭风格没有关系[16]。依照《精神障碍诊断与统计手册》第四版（DSM-IV）的准则，约有5–7%的儿童确诊[12][17]，若依照《国际疾病分类》第十版ICD-10的准则，则有1–2%确诊[18]。2015年估计全球有5110万人受到注意力不足过动症的影响[9]。盛行率主要会受到诊断方式及判断基准不同所影响[19]，男孩确诊的比例是女孩的二倍以上[12]，不过因为女孩的症状和男孩不同，因此常被忽略[20][21][22]。儿童期诊断到的注意力不足过动症，约到30–50%会持续到成年，成年人约有2–5%会有成人注意力不足过动症[23][24][25]。在成人注意力不足过动症中，过动的情形可能会被“内在的不安宁”所取代[26]。ADHD的症状可能不太容易和其他疾病的症状区分，也不太容易区分正常范围的活力充沛以及过动的分界点在哪里[4]。

建议治疗的方法依国家不同而有所差异，一般都会以心理治疗、生活方式调整以及药物，这三种中的一种或多种方式来进行治疗[1]。英国的医学指南建议针对儿童，只有在症状严重时，才建议使用药物为第一线的疗法，若儿童拒绝接受心理治疗，或是接受治疗后进展不大，需考虑用药物进行治疗，若针对成人，药物为第一线的治疗方式[27]。加拿大及美国则是建议第一线的治疗应该是合并药物治疗及行为治疗，只有一些学龄前的儿童例外[28][29]。在所有的医学指南中，都不建议针对学龄前的儿童用兴奋剂作为第一线的治疗方式[27][29]。用兴奋剂治疗，在前十四个月的疗效有研究资料可供佐证，不过不确定长期使用的疗效[30][31][32]。患有ADHD的成人可能会发展出应对方法（英语：Coping_(psychology)），来处理症状造成的部份或所有影响[33]。

18世纪起的医学文献中就有描述过类似注意力不足过动症的症状[34]。自1970年起，就有出现有关注意力不足过动症疾病本身、其诊断及治疗方式的争议[35]，争议和临床医师、教师、政策订定者、家长及媒体有关。争议焦点包括ADHD的病因，以及是否要用兴奋剂来治疗ADHD[36]。目前大部份的医疗人员都接受ADHD是儿童及成人的遗传性疾病，科学界的争议点则是在其诊断方式及治疗方式[37][38][39]。此疾病在1980年至1987年的正式名称是注意力缺失症（attention-deficit disorder，简称ADD），在更早期的名称是儿童过度活跃的反应（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood）[40][41]。

名称

[编辑]

注意力不足过动症也译作注意力不集中/过动症（英语：Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder，简称AD/HD）、过度活跃症（英语：Hyperkinetic Disorder；于ICD 10中的名称），俗称有多动症、多动障碍及大雄·胖虎症候群（日本）等。此病患的儿童习称过动儿，也有医疗人士建议改称为心动儿[42][43]。

症状及体征

[编辑]
ADHD的症状[44]
专注力失调 过动-冲动
  • 很难注意事情的细节
  • 不容易专注在一件事情上
  • 不容易针对事物或是活动进行规划组织
  • 会遗忘一些需要的物品
  • 在日常活动中比较健忘
  • 注意力持续时间较短，较容易分心
  • 不容易处理较具结构性的学校功课
  • 难以完成繁琐或需要花时间的任务
  • 没办法好好坐著
  • 在座位上坐立不安、动来动去
  • 会在不适当的时间点离开座位
  • 从事具风险性的事物，不太考虑后果
  • 时常处于活跃状态、精力充沛、停不下来
  • 说话的频率及时间会比其他人要多
  • 问题未说完就抢著说答案
  • 不容易轮流等候
  • 在对话中常常插嘴或是打断别人说话

注意力不足过动症的常见情形有不专心、过动（在成人则会以不安来表现）、破坏行为及冲动[45][46]。在人际关系及学业上都容易出现问题[45]，不过其症状不容易定义，因为很难介定一般情形下的不专心、过动及冲动会到什么程度，到什么情形下才需要介入治疗[47]。

依照《精神疾病诊断与统计手册》（DSM）第五版（DSM-5）的定义，注意力不足过动症的症状需出现超过六个月，或是其情形要比同年龄的要明显很多[12]，而且其症状已造成至少二个情境（例如社交、学校/工作、家庭）的问题[12]，这些条件需在12岁以前就出现[12]，若是17岁以下者，在专注力失调或是过动/冲动上的症状，至少需要有六项符合，17岁以上者则需要至少五项符合[12]。

子类型

[编辑]

注意力不足过动症可分为三个子类型[12][47]:

若是以注意力不足（专注力失调）为主的儿童或青少年，会有以下大部份甚至全部的症状，且非由其他医学疾病或药物直接造成[12][48]：

  • 容易分心、粗心、忘记事情、且经常从一件事情切换至另一件事情。
  • 很难持续专注在同一件事情上。
  • 除非进行自身有兴趣的事务，不然进行几分钟后就觉得无聊。
  • 难以对组织（规划）事情、完成一个任务保持专注。
  • 很难完成回家作业，或是如期缴交，常会遗失一些要完成作业或是其他活动需要的东西（例如铅笔、玩具、作业等）*
  • 当别人在和患者说话时，似乎没有在听对方说话。
  • 作白日梦、很感到困惑、动作缓慢。
  • 不容易像其他非注意力不足过动症患者一样，快速且准确的处理资讯。
  • 难以遵从指示
  • 不容易认知细节，常忽略细节。

若是以过动为主的儿童或青少年，会有以下大部份甚至全部的症状且非由其他医学疾病或药物直接造成[12][48]：

  • 常常烦躁及坐立不安
  • 不停地讲话
  • 四处东奔西跑、碰触或玩弄视野内的任一或每一个物体。
  • 难以在上课时间、吃饭时间、做功课的时间乖乖坐好。
  • 不停的动来动去。
  • 不容易进行安静的活动或是工作。
  • 没有耐心
  • 脱口说出不恰当的话语、毫无掩饰地流露内心的想法，且行事不顾后果。
  • 难耐在游戏中因轮流所产生的等待时间。
  • 经常打断他人的对话或活动。

若注意力不足过动症患者的症状符合上述二类，则属于合并型的注意力不足过动症。

ADHD的女性比较不会有过动及冲动的症状，比较会有注意力不集中及分心的症状[49]。注意力不足过动症中有关过动的症状，可能会随著年龄增长而渐渐消退，而转变为青少年及成人阶段的“内在不安宁”[23]。

注意力不足过动症的儿童、青少年及成年比较容易有社交技巧上的问题，例如社交互动、发展友谊及建立友谊。有半数的注意力不足过动症患者曾受到同侪社会排斥的情形，而没有注意力不足过动症的人被社会排斥的比例约为10%至15%。患有注意力不足过动症的人比较不容易处理口语及非语言的讯息，比较容易在社交互动上有负面的影响，也比较容易在对话时离题、忽略到一些社交的资讯、也比较不容易学习社交技能[50]。

注意力不足过动症的儿童比较常有不容易控制情绪的问题[51]，其写字（英语：handwriting）能力也比较弱[52]，在语言、说话及运动上的发展都比较晚[53][54]。虽然注意力不足过动症会造成许多的不便，不过若注意力不足过动症的儿童针对有兴趣的主题及事物，其专注力持续时间和其他儿童相当，甚至比其他儿童要好[15]。

可能有关的疾病

[编辑]

在注意力不足过动症患者中，大约会有三分之二的机率会伴随其他的疾病或特征[15]。常见的共病或特征如下：

  • 癫痫[55]
  • 妥瑞症[55]
  • 自闭症光谱（ASD）：此疾病会影响社交技巧、沟通能力，也会出现固定兴趣和重复行为[55]。
  • 在注意力不足过动症患者中，较常出现有焦虑症的情形[56]。
  • 间歇性暴怒症[12]
  • 在注意力不足过动症的儿童中，有20%至30%有学习障碍的情形。学习障碍可能包括发展障碍、语言障碍以及学习技巧的障碍[57]。注意力不足过动症本身不是一种学习障碍，不过常常会造成其他学业上的困难[57]。
  • 强迫症（OCD）常和注意力不足过动症一起出现，其中也有许多相同的特征[58]。
  • 智能障碍[12]
  • 反应性依附疾患（英语：Reactive attachment disorder）[12]
  • 物质使用疾患。注意力不足过动症的儿童及成人在物质滥用上的风险较高[23]。最常见的是酒或是大麻[23]。物质使用疾患的原因可能和注意力不足过动症造成的大脑回馈酬赏回路（英语：reward pathway）改变有关[23]。若注意力不足过动症和物质使用疾患一起出现，这会让注意力不足过动症的评估及治疗更加困难。如果ADHD合并“严重的”物质滥用问题，基于往后衍生的风险大小之考量，会优先治疗物质滥用问题[59][60]。
  • 睡眠障碍常和ADHD一起出现。这也可能是治疗ADHD的副作用。对于注意力不足过动症的儿童而言，失眠是最常见的睡眠障碍，一般会用行为疗法来进行治疗[61][62]。 ADHD患者常伴随著不容易入睡的问题，而他们也会睡的比较熟，因此早上不容易起床[63]，有时会针对不容易入睡的儿童用褪黑素治疗[64]。
  • ADHD的患者约有50%有对立反抗症（ODD），有20%有行为规范障碍（CD）[65]，其特性是反社会的行为，例如心态固执、有攻击性、常常闹脾气（英语：temper tantrums）、说谎和偷窃等[58]。若有对立反抗症或行为规范障碍的ADHD患者，长大成人后出现反社会人格障碍的机率约有一半[66]。根据脑部造影，可确认ADHD和行为规范障碍是两种不同的疾病[67]。
  • 有关注意力的原发型疾病，其症状是注意力不佳，不容易专注，也不容易维持清醒。这类儿童常会坐立不安、打呵欠及伸展身体，这些动作看似过动，但其实是为了让自己维持警觉以及有活力的状态[68]。
  • 迟缓的认知速率（英语：Sluggish cognitive tempo）（SCT）是许多症状的总称，其中不少症状可能也包括了注意力不足的问题。在ADHD的个案中，不论其子类型如何，有30%至50%符合这些症状[69]。
  • 刻板的惯性动作症（英语：Stereotypic movement disorder）[12]
  • 情感障碍（特别是躁郁症及重度抑郁症）。诊断患有混合子类型ADHD的男孩较容易有情感障碍[56]。有ADHD的成人有时也会有躁郁症，需要很仔细的评估来诊断及治疗这两种疾病[70]。
  • 注意力不足过动症的患者较常有不宁腿综合症，一般是因为缺铁性贫血所造成[71][72]。不过不宁腿综合症也可能是注意力不足过动症症状的一部份，因此需要进行详细的诊断，区分不宁腿综合症和注意力不足过动症[73]。
  • 注意力不足过动症的患者出现夜遗尿的风险较高[74]。

有一个2016年的系统回顾发现注意力不足过动症和肥胖、哮喘及睡眠障碍有有著直接的关联，和乳糜泻和偏头痛也有一些关系[75]。不过同一年的另一篇系统回顾认为注意力不足过动症和乳糜泻没有明确关系[76]。

智力

[编辑]

有研究发现患有注意力不足过动症的人其智商（IQ）测试的结果会比没有注意力不足过动症的人要低[77]，不过有关此研究结果的重要性，目前仍有争议，因为很难区分影响是因为ADHD的症状（例如分心）所造成还是ADHD本身对于智力有影响[77]。

有一份成人ADHD的研究指出有关ADHD患者在智力上的差异，没有统计上的意义，也可以用其他相关的疾病来解释[78]。

有一份最新的研究报告指出，智能障碍的病患罹患ADHD的机率相比其他人较为提高；而若亲属中有人为智能障碍者的话，家族中其他成员罹患ADHD的机率（相比于亲属中没有智能障碍者）也较高。根据拟和模型的分析，造成这种情况的原因有91%的可能性与基因有关。[79]

诊断

[编辑]
主条目：注意力不足过动症的诊断

注意力不足过动症的诊断是根据患者的行为和心理发展的评鉴并且排除毒品、药物的影响、或其他生理或心理的可能造成类似ADHD症状的因素而成。[59]诊断过程通常会将个案的父母意见及师长意见列入考量。[4] 大多数的诊断都是因为个案的教师首先对于孩子的健康提出关切，经转介后而成。[80] 注意力不足过动症的症状可能会被认为是人类个性光谱的极端或是其中一环而已。[81] 对于ADHD的药物反应结果，无法就此确认诊断或排除诊断。迄今为止ADHD与非ADHD病患脑部构造的差异方面，学界尚未达成一致结论，因此脑部造影只被用于对于复杂的人脑进一步的研究，尚未能应用于诊断ADHD。[82]使用量化脑波（英语：quantitative electroencephalography） (QEEG) 诊断ADHD是学界中正在研究的领域之一，然而迄今为止，脑波经过量化后的数值与ADHD之间的关系仍然不明。[83][84]

注意力不足过动症又可细分为以下三种类型：注意力不足（专注力失调）为主型、过动-冲动为主型、或注意力不足（专注力失调）且过动-冲动的混合型。[85]过动，即为“过度”活跃。过度两字意味著活跃的程度已经对生活造成不良的影响。[86]即便个案并无上述注意力不足过动症的所有特征，他仍有可能是ADHD患者，有无全部特征牵涉到是否有其他共病存在且治疗的主要目的在于协助患者避免缺点并发扬优点。成人及儿童青少年的注意力不足过动症的诊断依据《精神疾病诊断与统计手册》的标准、患者的历史经历（个案史）[85]、门诊病人的主诉、症状学、发展史、家族史、共病、生理评估、心理测验（例如：工作记忆、执行功能：计画与决策等、视觉记忆、空间记忆、理智等等[87]）及各种医师评估后认为需要进一步的检查等。[6][88][87]

ADHD隶属于神经发育所致之精神疾患[11][23]。 除此之外，ADHD也隶属于紊乱行为症候群（英语：disruptive behavior disorder），同样隶属于紊乱行为症候群的心理疾病有：对立反抗症、品行障碍、和反社会人格障碍[89]。ADHD的诊断并不暗指任何一个神经系统疾病（英语：neurological disorder）[90]。

医师在诊断过程中必须衡量个案的焦虑、忧郁程度、及对立反抗症、品行障碍、及学习和语言障碍。其他需要考量的问题包括：其他神经发育障碍、抽动综合症、和睡眠呼吸暂停[91]。

自我评量表，例如：ADHD 评量表（英语：ADHD rating scale）和Vanderbilt ADHD诊断评量表（英语：Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale）会在诊断和评估ADHD的过程中使用。[92]

病因学

[编辑]
ADHD患者的脑部与非ADHD患者（Typically developing controls）的脑部造影显示的大脑发育成熟度的差异[93][94]。

迄今为止，注意力不足过动症是儿童精神病学，获得最多且最深入研究的领域，然而绝大多数ADHD的确切成因目前并没有定论[95]，最有可能是基因、环境和社会等因素交互作用导致。[96][97][98][99]

有些个案的成因可能与脑部的疾病感染和脑部创伤有关。[96][97][98]根据研究统计，注意力不足过动症具有相当高的遗传率。[96][97]除了基因外，一些环境及社会因子也可能是注意力不足过动症的致病因素。[100][101][90]

基因遗传

[编辑]

双生子研究指出此疾病常常是遗传得来的，占了所有案例的75%[90][102][103]。若一儿童的兄弟姊妹中有患有ADHD，其自己身罹患ADHD的机率，是兄弟姊妹都没有ADHD的儿童的三至四倍[104]。一般也认为基因因素会决定ADHD的症状是否会持续到成年[105]。

一般来说，ADHD和许多基因有关，特别是和会影响多巴胺神经传导的基因有关[106][107]。和多巴胺有关的有多巴胺转运体（DAT）、多巴胺受体D4（DRD4）、多巴胺受体D5（英语：DRD5）、痕量胺相关受体1（英语：TAAR1）、单胺氧化酶A（英语：MAOA）、儿茶酚-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）及多巴胺β羟化酶（DBH）[107][108][109]，其他和ADHD有关的有血清素转运体（SERT）、HTR1B（英语：HTR1B）、SNAP25（英语：SNAP25）、GRIN2A（英语：GRIN2A）、ADRA2A（英语：ADRA2A）、TPH2（英语：TPH2）及脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）[106][107]。有一种常见的Latrophilin 3（英语：Latrophilin 3）基因变异，估计造成9%的ADHD，若有这种变异时，会对兴奋剂药物格外有反应[110]。DRD4 7R变体基因会增强多巴胺造成的抑制作用，也和ADHD有关。DRD4受体是G蛋白偶联受体，会抑制腺苷酸环化酶。DRD4-7R变异会造成许多行为上的表型，包括反映了注意力分散的ADHD症状[111]。

演化也可能是造成ADHD高比率的原因，特别是男性过动以及冲动的倾向[112]，有人曾提出假说，认为女性比较容易被会冒险的男性所吸引，因此增加了基因库中爱好冲动及冒险的基因的比率[113]。其他人则认为这种倾向有助于男性面对有压力或是危险的环境（例如更有冲劲，从事探索行为）[112][113]。在特定情境下，ADHD倾向虽然对个体是有害的，但是对群体是有益的[112][113][114]。ADHD虽然对个体可能不利，但其高比例以及异质性也有利于群体的生殖健康，并且可以增加基因库的多样性，对群体有益[114]。在特定环境下，ADHD也可能对个体有利，例如对捕食者的反应更快，以及较好的狩猎技巧（英语：Hunter vs. farmer hypothesis）等[115]。

患有唐氏综合征的人比较容易患有ADHD[116]。

环境因素

[编辑]

除了基因外，一些环境因子也可能是注意力不足过动症的致病因素[117]。例如：在怀孕期间摄取酒精可能导致胎儿酒精谱系障碍，可能包括了注意力不足过动症，或是有类似症状[118]。暴露在特定有毒物质，例如：铅或多氯联苯等，可能会产生类似注意力不足过动症的中毒症状[16][119]。暴露在磷酸酯的杀虫剂毒死蜱及烷基磷酸酯（英语：Alkyl phosphate）中，也可能会增加患病的风险，不过此一论点尚未受到广泛认可[120]。在怀孕过程中吸烟，将不利于胚胎的脑部神经发育，并将增加罹患注意力不足过动症的机率[16][121]。

新生儿极度早产、体重过轻、极端疏于照料、遭受凌虐、缺乏社会的互动也会增加ADHD的风险[16][122]。母亲在怀孕期间、儿童在出生时或成长初期遭受一些疾病的感染都可能提高致病率（例如麻疹、, 带状疱疹（英语：Varicella zoster virus）、脑炎、风疹、EV71等）[123]。长时间于妊娠期间使用对乙酰胺酚与孩子出生后带有ADHD，有统计上的相关性[124][125]。创伤性脑损伤的儿童中，后来至少有30%有ADHD的症状[126]，其中约有5%是因为脑部损伤[127]。

一些研究发现，人工食用色素或防腐剂可能与少部分儿童出现类似ADHD的症状，或者是与ADHD的流行率增加有关[16][128]，但是这些研究的证据力薄弱，而且可能只适用于有食物敏感的孩子[128][129][130]。英国及欧洲联盟已针对这些疑虑发布相关食品管理措施[131]。对于某些食物的食物过敏或食物不耐症，可能会恶化少数孩子既有的ADHD症状[132]。

截至2018年11月，研究并不支持注意力不足过动症是因为摄取过多的精致糖、看太多电视、教养方式（英语：parenting）、贫穷或家庭吵吵闹闹所造成，不过这些可能会让一些注意力不足过动症的症状更加恶化[46]。

社会

[编辑]

有些情形下，ADHD的患者不是其自身的问题，而是反映了家庭机能不全或是教育系统的不足[133]。也有一种情形，诊断出ADHD表示其他人对其课业期待的增加，因为在一些国家，诊断是一种让家长取得更多对小孩经济及教育支持的方式[127]。一般有经历过暴力或是情感虐待的儿童比较容易出现ADHD的行为[90]。

ADHD的社会建构理论（英语：social construct theory of ADHD）认为评断正常及异常的标准是社会建构的（是由社会中的所有人建立并且使其有效的，特别是医生、病患、家长、教师等），然后再主观的评估及判断要使用哪一种准则，以及有多少人会因此受到影响[134]。他们认为这是依DSM-IV标准诊断到的ADHD人数会是由ICD-10标准所诊断人数三至四倍的原因[22]。汤玛士·萨斯是ADHD社会建构理论的支持者，他认为ADHD是“发明出来的，之后取了这个名字”[135]。

班上里年龄最小的儿童比较容易诊断为ADHD，原因可能是他们的发展本来就比其他年龄略长几个月到一年的同学要晚一些[136][137][138]，在许多国家都有出现这种情形[138]，他们使用ADHD药物的比例也是其他同学的两倍左右[139]。

病理生理学

[编辑]
主条目：注意力不足过动症的病理生理学
ADHD的左前额叶通常与控制组（非ADHD患者）显著不同[140][141]。

注意力不足过动症被认为是肇因于部分脑内的神经传导物质系统的损伤（特别是与多巴胺和正肾上腺素有关的神经传导系统），进而对患者的脑部执行功能产生不良的影响[142][140]。多巴胺与正肾上腺素的脑内神经传导物质通道系统（英语：Neural_pathway）大多起源自脑内的腹侧被盖区和蓝斑核，并由此投射至不同的脑区且管理许多认知的流程（与认知功能相关的处理流程）。[142][143]特别是那些投射至前额叶和纹状体的脑内多巴胺神经传导通道系统（英语：dopaminergic pathway）和脑内正肾上腺素通道系统/蓝斑核系统。它们主要的工作就是负责调节执行功能（认知和行为的功能与管理）、动机、 酬赏/报偿的感受能力、和运动神经的功能[注 1]。[142][140][143]以上是目前已知在注意力不足过动症的病理生理学中扮演主要角色的几条脑内神经传导物质通道系统。也已经有人提议强化对于注意力不足过动症更全面的概观以及更多可能与之相关的脑内神经传导物质通道系统之探究。[140][144][145]

而研究也发现，注意力不足过动症是由一种发生于脑前额叶的遗传性的多巴胺新陈代谢失常引致。更近期的研究认为正肾上腺素的新陈代谢亦会对病情有所影响 [146] [147] [148]。

截至2019年8月底，已知ADHD也与 血清素传导系统（英语：serotonin pathways）（5hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]）、 乙酰胆碱传导系统（英语：acetylcholine pathways）（ACH）、鸦片类传导系统（英语：opioid pathways）、和谷氨酸传导系统（英语：glutamate pathways）（GLU）的失调有关。[149][150][151]

治疗

[编辑]
主条目：注意力不足过动症的治疗

注意力不足过动症的治疗方式包括心理治疗、行为治疗及药物，也有可能是用几种方式一起进行。治疗对病症会有长期的改善，但是无法完全根除病症的影响[152]。药物包括有兴奋剂、阿托莫西汀、肾上腺素受体α2（英语：alpha-2 adrenergic receptor）拮抗剂，有时也会包括抗抑郁药物[56][153]。若时无法专注在长期奖励上的人，有许多的正增强方式可以提升其工作表现[154]。ADHD药物中的兴奋剂也可以提升患者的毅力及工作表现[140][154]。

行为治疗

[编辑]

有关行为治疗在ADHD上的应用，有许多良好的实证，若是针对学龄前，或是症状轻微的病患，一般会建议用行为治疗为第一线的疗法[155][156]。心理疗法包括有心理教育、行为治疗、认知行为疗法（CBT）、人际取向心理治疗、家庭治疗、学校介入、社交技巧训练、行为方面的同侪介入、机构培训[157]、父母管理训练[90]。父母管理训练可以改善包括反对行为以及不合常规行为在内的一些行为问题[158]。心理疗法也包括神经反馈（英语：neurofeedback）训练[159]，目前还不清楚是否有效[160]。

有关家庭治疗的效果，目前还很少足够品质的证据可以佐证。目前证据认为家庭治疗的效果类似群体照顾（community care），效果比安慰剂要好[161]。有许多注意力不足过动症支持组织可以提供相关资讯，并且协助家庭适应ADHD的情形[162]。

有关社交技巧的训练、行为调整以及药物的对病患的好处可能有限。要减少后续心理及精神问题（例如重度抑郁症、犯罪、学校学习失败、物质使用疾患）的主要因素是和没有从事偏差行为的人建立友谊[163]。

规律的体能锻炼，特别是有氧运动，对于患有ADHD的儿童及成人而言也是有效的附加疗法（英语：adjunct therapy），特别是配合兴奋剂药物治疗时更是如此，不过针对改善症状，最理想的运动种类及强度还不清楚[164][165][166]。长期规律有氧运动对ADHD患者的好处是提升行为及运动能力、提升管控功能（包括专注、抑制控制、计划等）、较快的资讯处理速度，记忆力也会比较好[164][165][166]。家长及教师针对ADHD儿童规律有氧运动对行为及以社交-情绪上的改善有：全身整体机能较佳、减少ADHD症状、自尊感较好、减少焦虑及抑郁的程度、较少身体症状、课业成绩及教室行为较佳，社交行为也有改善[164]。若在有使用兴奋剂治疗时进行运动，会增加兴奋剂药物对执行功能的影响[164]，一般认为运动的短期效果是因为运动时大脑突触多巴胺和去甲肾上腺素浓度的增加所造成[164]。

药物

[编辑]

针对注意力不足过动症，可以用中枢神经刺激剂（也称为兴奋剂）药物进行治疗[167][168][已过时]，对于症状至少会有一些效果，短期而言，约有80%会有效果[36][169][168]。家长及教师反应哌甲酯比较可以改善其症状[36][170]，中枢神经刺激剂也可以减少ADHD儿童意外事故的风险[171]。针对ADHD的中枢神经刺激剂药物除了哌甲酯外，还有苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺等。

针对ADHD的非中枢神经刺激剂药物有许多种，包括阿托莫西汀、安非他酮、胍法辛及可乐定，这些可以作为主要药物治疗，或是配合中枢神经刺激剂药物一起使用[167][172]。目前有关各药物之间的比较，还没有说服力足够的研究结果可以佐证，不过在副作用上似乎差不多[173]。中枢神经刺激剂药物比较可以提升课业表现，阿托莫西汀则无此效果[174]。阿托莫西汀比较不会有成瘾问题，因此若有娱乐性药物或是强迫性药物使用风险的人，比较建议使用阿托莫西汀[23]。有关药物对社交行为上的影响，目前的资料也还不充份[173]。截至2015年6月年 (2015年6月-Missing required parameter 1=month!)，还没有完全确定ADHD药物的长期影响[175][176]。核磁共振成像 研究推测长期用苯丙胺或哌甲酯治疗，会减少因为ADHD造成的大脑功能及结构异常[177][178][179]。2018年的文献回顾发现若考虑短期效果，哌甲酯对儿童最有效，苯丙胺对成人最有效[180]。

什么情形要用胍法辛治疗会依国家而不同，英国国家健康照护专业组织（英语：National Institute for Health and Care Excellence）（NICE）针对成人是第一线药物，若针对儿童，只建议在病情严重时才使用，而大部份美国的医学指南会建议可以针对各年龄层使用[28]。针对学龄前的儿童，一般不建议用药物治疗[90][181]。若治疗用的中枢神经刺激剂剂量不足，可能会有没有药效的情形[182]，这尤其常出现在青少年及成人身上，因为核可的剂量是针对学龄儿童的，因此有些医疗人员会依体重或是依其他因素给药[183][184][185]。

一般而言，在正常治疗剂量的哌甲酯及中枢神经刺激剂是安全的，不过有其副作用以及禁忌症[167]。若哌甲酯给儿童及青少年使用，有研究发现这和一些严重或不严重的有害副作用有关，不过证据品质还不充份[186]。若针对儿童开立这类药物，需仔细的监测儿童的情形[186]。若ADHD的中枢神经刺激剂严重过量，可能会和兴奋性精神病（英语：stimulant psychosis）或是狂躁的症状[187]。若是治疗用的剂量，出现类似情形的机率非常低，只有0.1%，会在开始用中枢神经刺激剂药物治疗后的前几周出现[187][188][189]，若也使用抗精神病药，可以有效缓解急性苯丙胺精神病的症状[187]，若长期治疗，需要定期的监测[190]。兴奋剂的药物治疗需要定期停药，评估是否还需要用药、减少发育迟缓的情形，并且减低抗药性[191][192]。若是长期使用超过ADHD治疗剂量的兴奋剂药物滥用，一般会和成瘾及物质依赖有关[193][194]。不过未治疗的ADHD，会提高物质滥用以及行为规范障碍的风险[193]。兴奋剂药物的使用，可能可以降低风险，但也有可能没有此效果[23][175][193]。还不清楚怀孕时服用这些药物是否安全[195]。

饮食

[编辑]

饮食的调整可能对少部份的ADHD儿童有帮助[196]。一份2013年的统合分析针对有ADHD症状，而且有补充游离脂肪酸或是减少食用有人工色素食品的儿童的相关研究发现，只有不到三分之一的儿童在症状上有改善[129]。这方面的助益有可能只是对有食物敏感的儿童有帮助，也有可能是因为这些儿童同时也在接受ADHD的治疗[129]。这些文献也指出目前已有的证据无法支持减少食用特定食物来治疗ADHD的疗法[129]。2014年发表的文献也发现排除饮食在治疗ADHD上的成效有限[132]。另一篇2016年文献回顾指出，根据研究结果，“无麸质饮食在未来成为ADHD的标准疗法”之机率是微乎其微[76]。

2017的文献回顾指出有一些排除饮食的方式对于非常小，无法用药的幼童，以及对药物没有反应的患者可能有用，不过不鼓励用补充游离脂肪酸或是减少食用有人工色素食品作为ADHD的正规治疗方式[197] 。长期铁、镁及碘等矿物质的不足可能可以让ADHD的症状加剧[198]，也有少数证据指出组织内锌含量过低和ADHD有关[199]。不过除非证实有锌不足（英语：zinc deficiency）的情形（目前多半是开发中国家才会有锌不足的情形），一般不建议用锌补充剂（英语：zinc supplementation）治疗[200]。不过若锌矿物质和苯丙胺类药物同时使用的话，可以减低苯丙胺药物的最小有效剂量，也就是可以服用较少的药物而达到相同的效果[201]。另有证据指出Ω-3脂肪酸对于病情会有些许的改善，不过不建议取代医学治疗[202][203]。

流行病学

[编辑]
主条目：注意力不足过动症的流行病学
注意力不足过动症各子类型的比例分布（紫色为混合型；蓝色为注意力缺陷为主型；粉红色为过动—冲动为主型）[204][205]

注意力不足过动症是童年阶段最常见的发育疾患[206]。根据2015年发表的研究，依照DSM-III, DSM-III-R及DSM-IV的标准，国际ADHD流行率中位数，儿童为6-8%[207][17]。若使用ICD-10的标准，同年龄儿童的流行率则为1–2% [18]。

美国的成人注意力不足过动症的流行率为4-5%[208][209]。根据《找回专注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手册》，成人ADHD在台湾的流行率推估为3-4%[96]:24-25。ADHD是全球性的[210][211][212][213]。世界各地ADHD流行率的差异主要是因为世界各地使用的ADHD诊断方法不同。[214] 若使用相同的诊断方法，则世界各地所得出的ADHD流行率将介于伯仲之间。[215]

在亚洲，台湾[216][217]、日本[218]、韩国[219]、越南[220]、中国大陆[221]、港澳[222][223]等地的未成年之ADHD流行率均介于6-8%之间。

英国和美国的ADHD诊断率和治疗率自1970年代起逐年增加至今[224]。学界的共识认为这个现象是因为诊断方法的变迁[224]以及人们逐渐愿意利用药物来治疗ADHD所致[18]，并非ADHD的流行率真的增加了。[214][225]

学界共识认为，2013年起，DSM的版本从DSM 4TR 推进到 DSM 5 会使得ADHD的诊断数增加（特别是成人注意力不足过动症的诊断数） [226]。

历史

[编辑]
主条目：“注意力不足/过动症”的历史由来（英语：History of ADHD）
关于ADHD治疗、诊断标准及流行率的时间轴 （英文）

1798年时苏格兰医师亚历山大·克里奇顿（英语：Alexander Crichton）在其著作《对精神紊乱的性质和起源的探究》（An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement）中提到了精神不安[227][228]，1902年，英国儿科医生George Still（英语：George Frederic Still）首次描述一项与注意力不足过动症近似的病征[229][224]。

不同的时期，描述注意力不足过动症的名词也有所不同：在1952年的DSM-I称为微细脑功能失常，在1968年的DSM-II则称为儿童活动亢进，在1980年的DSM-III称为注意力不足症（可能伴随过动，也可能没有）英文为 attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity[224]，在1987年的DSM-III-R更名为注意力不足过动症，在1994年的DSM-IV将注意力不足过动症分为注意力散涣主导型（英语：Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive）、活动量过多型以及混合型[230]，在2013年的DSM-5仍延用此一分类[12]。其他的名词有在1930年代使用的微细脑创伤[231]，但因为不少病童都没有发觉有受过任何创伤，因此后来改名为微细脑功能失常。

1937年时，神经刺激剂开始用在注意力不足过动症的治疗[232]。1934年时美国许可将安非他命用在注意力不足过动症治疗，是美国第一个许可的苯丙胺类药物[233]，1950年代开始使用哌甲酯（商品名称为利他能），1970年代则开始使用对映异构的右旋苯丙胺[224]。

预后

[编辑]

孩童的ADHD有30–50%的机率持续到其成人时期，[234][235][236] 那些持续被ADHD影响的成人可能会在成长过程中发展出一些技巧弥补部分ADHD的症状。[33] 带有ADHD的儿童与青少年相较于不带有ADHD的儿童与青少年，有较高的风险发生意外受伤等事故。[171]

ADHD药物能改善（非治愈）患者在生活中许多方面的功能性损伤（functional impairment ；可理解为应对能力的损伤）和生活品质（英语：Quality of life (healthcare)）（例如：发生意外事故的风险）。但是ADHD患者的学习障碍和执行功能缺损（例如时间管理、生活秩序以及组织能力[237]）等症状，即便在服用ADHD药物后，这些症状的改善程度极其有限或几乎没有效果。[238]

考科蓝协作组织于2015年发表的系统性文献回顾指出，虽然中枢神经刺激剂不会令服用者产生严重的副作用，但他们较常出现失眠、食欲不振等较为轻微、影响较轻的副作用，并衍生出长期预后的不确定因素，因此未来的研究重点将会聚焦于探讨解决前述的副作用的方法。与此同时，未来亦需要深入地研究“非药物治疗方式”以及可能的“非药物治疗方式”之随机对照试验[239][240]。

迄今为止，对于ADHD的长期追踪调查主要都是小规模的，代表性有限。唯一规模较大也较具有代表性的美国卫生及公共服务部MTA（多模式治疗）研究发现，那些曾在1990年代参加MTA的儿童ADHD，六到八年后进入青春期，他们在许多方面的应对能力，取决于他们小时候治疗前呈现的症状、共病、疾病的严重度以及治疗后对于MTA四种治疗模式的任意一种模式的契合度高低等因素。[241]

当MTA追踪这些受试者长达十六年，直到受试者的平均年龄到达25岁的时候，发现这些患者生活中各领域的应对能力取决于ADHD的症状是否持续到成年、ADHD的症状严重度、和共病等因素。[242][243][244]

社会与文化

[编辑]
美国电影电视演员伊丽莎·杜什库鼓励大众认识ADHD[245]

注意力不足过动症患者常被错误认为“只是懒惰或缺乏意志力”、“诊断只不过是用来为患者们的问题找借口罢了”等。有ADHD患童因长期遭到霸凌，于独处时结束生命。[246][247][248]台湾医师的研究发现，在台湾，注意力不足过动症患者具有显著较高的“因伤致死”机率，起因来自：自杀、意外和谋杀。[249]

一些家庭对过度活跃症认识不深，不了解、误解为弱智、低能，大部份会选择以暴易暴的方法解决问题。有些会选择送去智能庇护所，因为专业人员不懂得审查过度活跃症与智障无关，患者会被送去孤儿院、保良局及儿童之家。

许多国家或地区都程度不等的在“精神医疗及心理卫生”方面遭遇资源不足以面对现实所需的情况。[250][251][252]以美国为例，美国精神医疗环境即便先进且持续进步中，然而注意力不足过动症患者接受行为治疗的比例仍被当地学者专家认为仍然太低。 [252] 2017年美国政府拨出一亿美金用于支持儿童与青少年常见精神疾病的研究：如何提供自闭症者更好的治疗、其他儿童心理精神疾病（包括ADHD在内）的病理学及生理学等。[253]

治疗方式的争议

[编辑]
主条目：注意力不足过动症的争议

自1970年代开始，注意力不足过动症疾病本身、其诊断及医疗在欧美就已经是有争议性的议题。争议和临床医师、教师、政策订定者、家长及媒体有关。世界卫生组织也认可治疗ADHD儿童时，先进行非药物治疗再进行药物治疗的作法[254][255]，但各观点对注意力不足过动症的认知差异很大。

有的观点认为注意力不足过动症是正常行为的范围内，也有的假定注意力不足过动症是一种遗传疾病。其他有关注意力不足过动症的争议包括对儿童用（合理剂量的）中枢神经刺激剂（俗称兴奋剂）药物进行治疗、诊断的方式，以及是否有过度诊断（英语：Overdiagnosis）的情形。有些宗教对治疗方式也会有不同的认知，例如公民人权委员会（山达基在1969年成立的反精神医学团体）曾在1980年代提出反对使用利他能的运动，目前该组织的立场仍是不主张用中枢神经刺激剂处方治疗ADHD[256]。

中国大陆、香港

[编辑]

目前注意力不足过动症的治疗策略（涵盖药物及非药物治疗）已成为中国大陆的相关医学指南 [257]，中国大陆的多动症关爱协会指出：“中国大陆对‘注意力缺陷多动障碍’的诊断、治疗尚不规范，家长的认知亦不够全面，导致社会上仍有很多不科学的治疗方式和训练方法在被家长们使用。”

香港特别行政区则遇到特教需求的识别及轮流服务的等候时间过长、资源及服务不足、教师人手不足及培训有待改善、医校社合作不顺畅以及政府未有整体支援特教学生的政策蓝图及愿景的问题。目前正在推动特殊教育进行立法，以全面保障特殊教育需要学生的权利。[251]另外，香港的一项问卷调查发现，有特殊教育需要的学生受欺凌的比率极高，在小学环境下有33%遭受欺凌，在中学环境下有47%。而于国际学生能力评估计划的调查亦显示，香港中学生遭到欺凌的比率为32.3%。即使家长们想寻求协助亦因资源问题，大部分服务需要自费，而基层家长较为难以负担。另外，亦有社工指出服务缺乏系统整理，而大部分学校都缺乏动机正面处理事件[258]。

备注

[编辑]
  1. ^ 台湾儿童与青少年精神科医师高淑芬在其著作《找回专注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手册》提到，虽然“过动-冲动型”和“混合型”的ADHD从小就非常好动，坐不住，老是跑跑跳跳、追逐打闹，精力无穷，但其实这类孩子的运动协调性可能不太好，运动协调性较弱的表象为：肢体动作较大、动作较粗鲁。[96]

参考文献

[编辑]

参考资料

[编辑]
  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. 2016-03 [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-07-23）. 
  2. ^ American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Symptoms and Diagnosis. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014-09-29 [2014-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Dulcan MK, Lake M. Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders. Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 4th illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2011: 34. ISBN 978-1-58562-416-4 –通过Google Books. 
  5. ^ Ferri, Fred F. Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. 2010: Chapter A. ISBN 0323076998. 
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 CDC. ADHD Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2017-08-31 [2018-07-15]. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. Deciding if a child has ADHD is a several-step process. This page gives you an overview of how ADHD is diagnosed. There is no single test to diagnose ADHD, and many other problems, like sleep disorders, anxiety, depression, and certain types of learning disabilities, can have similar symptoms. 
  7. ^ Coghill DR, Banaschewski T, Soutullo C, Cottingham MG, Zuddas A. Systematic review of quality of life and functional outcomes in randomized placebo-controlled studies of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017-11, 26 (11): 1283–1307. ISSN 1018-8827. PMC 5656703 可免费查阅. PMID 28429134. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-0986-y. 
  8. ^ Jain R, Katic A. Current and Investigational Medication Delivery Systems for Treating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2016-08, 18 (4). PMID 27828696. doi:10.4088/PCC.16r01979. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence, Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015.. Lancet. 2016-10-08, 388 (10053): 1545–1602. PMC 5055577 可免费查阅. PMID 27733282. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. 
  10. ^ Sroubek A, Kelly M, Li X. Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience Bulletin. 2013-02, 29 (1): 103–10. PMC 4440572 可免费查阅. PMID 23299717. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Caroline SC (编). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2010: 133 [2017-11-02]. ISBN 9780387717982. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  12. ^ 12.00 12.01 12.02 12.03 12.04 12.05 12.06 12.07 12.08 12.09 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 0890425558. 
  13. ^ Erskine HE, Norman RE, Ferrari AJ, Chan GC, Copeland WE, Whiteford HA, Scott JG. Long-Term Outcomes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-10, 55 (10): 841–50. PMID 27663939. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016. 
  14. ^ Kooij, J.J.S.; Bijlenga, D. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry. 2019-02, 56: 14–34. PMID 30453134. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001. 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Walitza S, Drechsler R, Ball J. [The school child with ADHD] [The school child with ADHD]. Therapeutische Umschau. Revue Therapeutique. 2012-08, 69 (8): 467–73. PMID 22851461. doi:10.1024/0040-5930/a000316 （德语）. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 NIMH. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Easy-to-Read). National Institute of Mental Health. 2013 [2016-04-17]. （原始内容存档于2016-04-14）. 
  17. ^ 17.0 17.1 Willcutt EG. The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012-07, 9 (3): 490–9. PMC 3441936 可免费查阅. PMID 22976615. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8. 
  18. ^ 18.0 18.1 18.2 Cowen, Philip; Harrison, Paul; Burns, Tom. Drugs and other physical treatments. Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry 6th. Oxford University Press. 2012: 546. ISBN 978-0-19-960561-3. 
  19. ^ Faraone SV. Ch. 25: Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Tsuang MT, Tohen M, Jones P (编). Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology 3rd. John Wiley & Sons. 2011: 450 [2018-09-16]. ISBN 9780470977408. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  20. ^ Crawford, Nicole. ADHD: a women's issue. Monitor on Psychology. 2003-02, 34 (2): 28 [2019-11-21]. （原始内容存档于2017-04-09）. 
  21. ^ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H. [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)] [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. L'Encephale. 2009-04, 35 (2): 107–14. PMID 19393378. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005 （法语）. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Singh I. Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2008-12, 9 (12): 957–64. PMID 19020513. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 23.6 23.7 Kooij SJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugué M, Carpentier PJ, et al. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry. 2010-09, 10: 67. PMC 2942810 可免费查阅. PMID 20815868. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67. 
  24. ^ Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, Simon V, Bitter I. [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review] [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review]. Psychiatria Hungarica. 2008, 23 (5): 324–35. PMID 19129549 （匈牙利语）. 
  25. ^ Ginsberg Y, Quintero J, Anand E, Casillas M, Upadhyaya HP. Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2014, 16 (3). PMC 4195639 可免费查阅. PMID 25317367. doi:10.4088/PCC.13r01600. Reports indicate that ADHD affects 2.5%–5% of adults in the general population,5–8 compared with 5%–7% of children.9,10 ... However, fewer than 20% of adults with ADHD are currently diagnosed and/or treated by psychiatrists.7,15,16 
  26. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : diagnosis and management of ADHD in children, young people, and adults. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (Great Britain), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain), British Psychological Society., Royal College of Psychiatrists. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 17. ISBN 9781854334718. OCLC 244314955. PMID 22420012. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Pharmacological Treatment. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 303–307 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  28. ^ 28.0 28.1 Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. [2011-02-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2021-01-21）. 
  29. ^ 29.0 29.1 Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recommendations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015-06-24 [2015-07-13]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-07）. 
  30. ^ NIMH » The Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA):Questions and Answers. NIMH » Home. [2019-01-01]. （原始内容存档于2021-01-30）. Why were the MTA medication treatments more effective than community treatments that also usually included medication? Answer: There were substantial differences in quality and intensity between the study-provided medication treatments and those provided in the community care group. 
  31. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH. Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge. CNS Drugs. 2011-07, 25 (7): 539–54. PMID 21699268. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. 
  32. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, et al. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLOS One. 2015-02, 10 (2): e0116407. PMC 4340791 可免费查阅. PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. 
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 Gentile JP, Atiq R, Gillig PM. likelihood that the adult with ADHD has developed coping mechanisms to compensate for his or her impairment. Psychiatry. 2006-08, 3 (8): 25–30 [2019-01-02]. PMC 2957278 可免费查阅. PMID 20963192. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  34. ^ Lange KW, Reichl S, Lange KM, Tucha L, Tucha O. The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2010-12, 2 (4): 241–55. PMC 3000907 可免费查阅. PMID 21258430. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0045-8. 
  35. ^ Parrillo VN. Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. 2008: 63 [2009-05-02]. ISBN 9781412941655. 
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J. ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children. Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 2008, 16 (3): 151–66. PMID 18569037. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. 
  37. ^ Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E. When the child with ADHD grows up (PDF). Australian Family Physician. 2004-08, 33 (8): 615–8 [2019-01-01]. PMID 15373378. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-09-24）. 
  38. ^ Silver LB. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 3rd. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004: 4–7. ISBN 978-1-58562-131-6. 
  39. ^ Schonwald A, Lechner E. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2006-04, 18 (2): 189–95. PMID 16601502. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. 
  40. ^ Weiss LG. WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation scientist-practitioner perspectives 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. 2005: 237 [2019-01-01]. ISBN 978-0-12-564931-5. （原始内容存档于2021-01-16）. 
  41. ^ ADHD: The Diagnostic Criteria. PBS. Frontline. [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-04-20）. 
  42. ^ 陈锦宏. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會理事長陳錦宏醫師 敬上. Tc-adhd.com. 2015-04-18 [2016-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-24） （中文（台湾））. 理事长的话：在这场演讲，协会提出第一个主张，我们主张将ADHD原本“过动儿”的中文称呼改为“心动儿”，因为ADHD包含没有过动症状的不专心儿童，“过动儿”常令人混淆，另外过动儿文字本身即包含负面意涵，而心动儿无此字义上的问题。 
  43. ^ 陈锦宏. 過動兒現象如何避免被以偏概全. 康健杂志. 2017-01-25 [2018-04-14]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-24） （中文）. 
  44. ^ ADHD: Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). 2017-08-31. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07）. 
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 Dobie C. Diagnosis and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary care for school-age children and adolescents: 79. 2012 [2012-10-10]. （原始内容存档于2013-03-01）. 
  46. ^ 46.0 46.1 CDC, Facts About ADHD, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-01-06 [2016-03-20], （原始内容存档于2016-03-22） 
  47. ^ 47.0 47.1 Ramsay JR. Cognitive behavioral therapy for adult ADHD. Routledge. 2007: 4, 25–26. ISBN 978-0-415-95501-0. 
  48. ^ 48.0 48.1 National Institute of Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). National Institutes of Health. 2008 [2019-12-03]. （原始内容存档于2013-01-19）. 
  49. ^ Gershon J. A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2002-01, 5 (3): 143–54. PMID 11911007. doi:10.1177/108705470200500302. 
  50. ^ Coleman WL. Social competence and friendship formation in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Adolescent Medicine. 2008-08, 19 (2): 278–99, x. PMID 18822833. 
  51. ^ ADHD Anger Management Directory. Webmd.com. [2014-01-17]. （原始内容存档于2013-11-05）. 
  52. ^ Racine MB, Majnemer A, Shevell M, Snider L. Handwriting performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2008-04, 23 (4): 399–406. PMID 18401033. doi:10.1177/0883073807309244. 
  53. ^ F90 Hyperkinetic disorders, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision, World Health Organisation, 2010 [2014-11-02], （原始内容存档于2014-11-02） 
  54. ^ Bellani M, Moretti A, Perlini C, Brambilla P. Language disturbances in ADHD. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. 2011-12, 20 (4): 311–5. PMID 22201208. doi:10.1017/S2045796011000527. 
  55. ^ 55.0 55.1 55.2 ADHD Symptoms. nhs.uk. 2017-10-20 [2018-05-15]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-01）. 
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 56.2 Wilens TE, Spencer TJ. Understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood. Postgraduate Medicine. 2010-09, 122 (5): 97–109. PMC 3724232 可免费查阅. PMID 20861593. doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206. 
  57. ^ 57.0 57.1 Bailey, Eileen. ADHD and Learning Disabilities: How can you help your child cope with ADHD and subsequent Learning Difficulties? There is a way.. Remedy Health Media, LLC. [2013-11-15]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-03）. 
  58. ^ 58.0 58.1 Krull, KR. Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children需要付费订阅. Uptodate. Wolters Kluwer Health. 2007-12-05 [2008-09-12]. （原始内容存档于2009-06-05）. 
  59. ^ 59.0 59.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 18–26, 38 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  60. ^ Wilens TE, Morrison NR. The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2011-07, 24 (4): 280–5. PMC 3435098 可免费查阅. PMID 21483267. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328345c956. 
  61. ^ Corkum P, Davidson F, Macpherson M. A framework for the assessment and treatment of sleep problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatric Clinics of North America. 2011-06, 58 (3): 667–83. PMID 21600348. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.004. 
  62. ^ Tsai MH, Huang YS. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep disorders in children. The Medical Clinics of North America. 2010-05, 94 (3): 615–32. PMID 20451036. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.008. 
  63. ^ Brown TE. ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice. Current Psychiatry Reports. 2008-10, 10 (5): 407–11. PMID 18803914. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. 
  64. ^ Bendz LM, Scates AC. Melatonin treatment for insomnia in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2010-01, 44 (1): 185–91. PMID 20028959. doi:10.1345/aph.1M365. 
  65. ^ McBurnett K, Pfiffner LJ. Treatment of aggressive ADHD in children and adolescents: conceptualization and treatment of comorbid behavior disorders. Postgraduate Medicine. 2009-11, 121 (6): 158–65. PMID 19940426. doi:10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2084. 
  66. ^ Hofvander B, Ossowski D, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H. Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition (PDF). International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2009, 32 (4): 224–34 [2019-12-03]. PMID 19428109. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-11-28）. 
  67. ^ Rubia K. "Cool" inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus "hot" ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review. Biological Psychiatry. 2011-06, 69 (12): e69–87. PMID 21094938. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.023. 
  68. ^ Weinberg WA, Brumback RA. Primary disorder of vigilance: a novel explanation of inattentiveness, daydreaming, boredom, restlessness, and sleepiness. The Journal of Pediatrics. 1990-05, 116 (5): 720–5. PMID 2329420. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(05)82654-x. 
  69. ^ Barkley RA. Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2014-01, 42 (1): 117–25 [2018-03-12]. PMID 24234590. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-08-09）. 
  70. ^ Baud P, Perroud N, Aubry JM. [Bipolar disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: differential diagnosis or comorbidity]. Revue Medicale Suisse. 2011-06, 7 (297): 1219–22. PMID 21717696 （法语）. 
  71. ^ Merino-Andreu M. [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children] [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children]. Revista de Neurologia. 2011-03,. 52 Suppl 1: S85–95. PMID 21365608 （西班牙语）. 
  72. ^ Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL. Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment. Sleep Medicine. 2010-08, 11 (7): 643–51. PMID 20620105. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014. 
  73. ^ Karroum E, Konofal E, Arnulf I. [Restless-legs syndrome]. Revue Neurologique. 2008, 164 (8–9): 701–21. PMID 18656214. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2008.06.006 （法语）. 
  74. ^ Shreeram S, He JP, Kalaydjian A, Brothers S, Merikangas KR. Prevalence of enuresis and its association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among U.S. children: results from a nationally representative study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009-01, 48 (1): 35–41. PMC 2794242 可免费查阅. PMID 19096296. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318190045c. 
  75. ^ Instanes JT, Klungsøyr K, Halmøy A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Adult ADHD and Comorbid Somatic Disease: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Attention Disorders (Systematic Review). 2018-02, 22 (3): 203–228 [2021-02-06]. PMC 5987989 可免费查阅. PMID 27664125. doi:10.1177/1087054716669589. （原始内容存档于2017-02-07）. 开放获取
  76. ^ 76.0 76.1 Ertürk E, Wouters S, Imeraj L, Lampo A. Association of ADHD and Celiac Disease: What Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of the Literature. Journal of Attention Disorders (Review). 2016-01: 108705471561149. PMID 26825336. doi:10.1177/1087054715611493. Up till now, there is no conclusive evidence for a relationship between ADHD and CD. Therefore, it is not advised to perform routine screening of CD when assessing ADHD (and vice versa) or to implement GFD as a standard treatment in ADHD. Nevertheless, the possibility of untreated CD predisposing to ADHD-like behavior should be kept in mind. ... It is possible that in untreated patients with CD, neurologic symptoms such as chronic fatigue, inattention, pain, and headache could predispose patients to ADHD-like behavior (mainly symptoms of inattentive type), which may be alleviated after GFD treatment. (CD: celiac disease; GFD: gluten-free diet) 
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 Frazier TW, Demaree HA, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology. 2004-07, 18 (3): 543–55. PMID 15291732. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.543. 
  78. ^ Bridgett DJ, Walker ME. Intellectual functioning in adults with ADHD: a meta-analytic examination of full scale IQ differences between adults with and without ADHD. Psychological Assessment. 2006-03, 18 (1): 1–14. PMID 16594807. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.1.1. 
  79. ^ Faraone, Stephen V.; Ghirardi, Laura; Kuja-Halkola, Ralf; Lichtenstein, Paul; Larsson, Henrik. The Familial Co-Aggregation of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Intellectual Disability: A Register-Based Family Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.11.011. 
  80. ^ Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  81. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Diagnosis. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 116–7, 119 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  82. ^ MerckMedicus Modules: ADHD –Pathophysiology. 2002-08 [2018-07-18]. （原始内容存档于2010-05-01）. 
  83. ^ Sand T, Breivik N, Herigstad A. [Assessment of ADHD with EEG]. Tidsskrift for Den Norske Laegeforening. 2013-02, 133 (3): 312–6. PMID 23381169. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.12.0224 （挪威语）. 
  84. ^ Millichap JG, Millichap JJ, Stack CV. Utility of the electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. 2011-07, 42 (3): 180–4. PMID 21870470. doi:10.1177/155005941104200307. 
  85. ^ 85.0 85.1 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition: DSM-IV-TR®. American Psychiatric Association. 2000 [2017-02-17]. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. （原始内容存档于2020-09-23）. 
  86. ^ Hyperactivity: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. MedlinePlus. 2018-07-09 [2018-07-15]. （原始内容存档于2017-07-15）. Hyperactivity is often considered more of a problem for schools and parents than it is for the child. But many hyperactive children are unhappy, or even depressed. Hyperactive behavior may make a child a target for bullying, or make it harder to connect with other children. Schoolwork may be more difficult. Kids who are hyperactive are frequently punished for their behavior. Excessive movement (hyperkinetic behavior) often decreases as the child grows older. It may disappear entirely by adolescence. 
  87. ^ 87.0 87.1 引用错误：没有为名为NIMH_ADHD_basic的参考文献提供内容
  88. ^ 陈锦宏. 心動家族:注意力不足過動症ＡＤＨＤ的第三條路. 台湾心动家族儿童青少年关怀协会. Tc-adhd.com. 2016-12-13 [2017-02]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-24） （中文（台湾））. 
  89. ^ Wiener JM, Dulcan MK. Textbook Of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004 [2014-11-02]. ISBN 978-1-58562-057-9. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  90. ^ 90.0 90.1 90.2 90.3 90.4 90.5 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009 [2017-06-22]. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  91. ^ Wolraich M, Brown L, Brown RT, DuPaul G, Earls M, Feldman HM, Ganiats TG, Kaplanek B, Meyer B, Perrin J, Pierce K, Reiff M, Stein MT, Visser S. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2011-11, 128 (5): 1007–22. PMC 4500647 可免费查阅. PMID 22003063. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2654. 
  92. ^ Smith BJ, Barkley RA, Shapiro CJ. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Mash EJ, Barkley RA (编). Assessment of Childhood Disorders 4th. New York, NY: Guilford Press. 2007: 53–131. ISBN 978-1-59385-493-5. 
  93. ^ Maturation of the brain, as reflected in the age at which a cortex area attains peak thickness, in ADHD (above) and normal development (below). Lighter areas are thinner, darker areas thicker. Light blue in the ADHD sequence corresponds to the same thickness as light purple in the normal development sequence. The darkest areas in the lower part of the brain, which are not associated with ADHD, had either already peaked in thickness by the start of the study, or, for statistical reasons, were not amenable to defining an age of peak cortex thickness. Movie of same data below. Source: NIMH Child Psychiatry Branch
  94. ^ Brain Matures a Few Years Late in ADHD, But Follows Normal Pattern. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2015-10-06 [2018-12-29]. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  95. ^ Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. ScienceDirect: 42–58. 2015-01-01 [2018-09-19]. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-398270-4.00004-5. （原始内容存档于2021-02-09）. Despite being the most studied disorder in child psychiatry, the pathophysiology of ADHD remains elusive. 
  96. ^ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 96.4 高淑芬. 找回專注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 台北: 心灵工坊. 2016-05-09 [2016-12-12]. ISBN 9789863570592 （中文（台湾））. 
  97. ^ 97.0 97.1 97.2 高淑芬. 家有過動兒：幫助ADHD孩子快樂成長. 台北: 心灵工坊. 2013-08-28. ISBN 9789866112805. 
  98. ^ 98.0 98.1 Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 2: Causative Factors. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. New York, NY: Springer Science. 2010: 26 [2021-02-06]. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  99. ^ Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K. What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. J Child Psychol Psychiatry. 2013-01, 54 (1): 3–16. PMC 3572580 可免费查阅. PMID 22963644. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x. 
  100. ^ CDC, Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-03-16 [2016-04-17], （原始内容存档于2016-04-14） 
  101. ^ Mental health of children and adolescents (PDF). 2005-01-15 [2011-10-13]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-10-24）. 
  102. ^ Psychiatric GWAS Consortium: ADHD Subgroup, Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S, Asherson P, Franke B, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2010-09, 49 (9): 884–97. PMC 2928252 可免费查阅. PMID 20732625. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008. 
  103. ^ Burt SA. Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin. 2009-07, 135 (4): 608–37. PMID 19586164. doi:10.1037/a0015702. 
  104. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema S. Abnormal Psychology Sixth. 2013: 267. ISBN 978-0-07-803538-8. 
  105. ^ Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, et al. The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review. Molecular Psychiatry. 2012-10, 17 (10): 960–87. PMC 3449233 可免费查阅. PMID 22105624. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138. 
  106. ^ 106.0 106.1 Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID. Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Human Genetics. 2009-07, 126 (1): 51–90. PMID 19506906. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x. 
  107. ^ 107.0 107.1 107.2 Kebir O, Tabbane K, Sengupta S, Joober R. Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. 2009-03, 34 (2): 88–101. PMC 2647566 可免费查阅. PMID 19270759. 
  108. ^ Berry MD. The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases. Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials. 2007-01, 2 (1): 3–19 [2021-02-06]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.329.563 可免费查阅. PMID 18473983. doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. （原始内容存档于2017-02-01）. Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1. 
  109. ^ Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR. Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets. Molecular Pharmacology. 2009-08, 76 (2): 229–35. PMC 2713119 可免费查阅. PMID 19389919. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. 
  110. ^ Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M. Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2010-11, 2 (3): 139–47. PMC 3280610 可免费查阅. PMID 21432600. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2. 
  111. ^ Nikolaidis A, Gray JR. ADHD and the DRD4 exon III 7-repeat polymorphism: an international meta-analysis. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 2010-06, 5 (2–3): 188–93. PMC 2894686 可免费查阅. PMID 20019071. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp049. 
  112. ^ 112.0 112.1 112.2 Glover V. Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2011-04, 52 (4): 356–67. PMID 21250994. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x. 
  113. ^ 113.0 113.1 113.2 Williams J, Taylor E. The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. 2006-06, 3 (8): 399–413. PMC 1578754 可免费查阅. PMID 16849269. doi:10.1098/rsif.2005.0102. 
  114. ^ 114.0 114.1 Cardo E, Nevot A, Redondo M, Melero A, de Azua B, García-De la Banda G, Servera M. [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?] [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?]. Revista de Neurologia. 2010-03,. 50 Suppl 3: S143–7. PMID 20200842 （西班牙语）. 
  115. ^ Adriani W, Zoratto F, Laviola G. Brain Processes in Discounting: Consequences of Adolescent Methylphenidate Exposure. Stanford C, Tannock R (编). Behavioral neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its treatment. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Volume 9. New York: Springer. 2012-01-13: 132–134 [2019-12-03]. ISBN 978-3-642-24611-1. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  116. ^ Ekstein S, Glick B, Weill M, Kay B, Berger I. Down syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2011-10, 26 (10): 1290–5 [2021-02-06]. PMID 21628698. doi:10.1177/0883073811405201. （原始内容存档于2015-11-20）. 
  117. ^ CDC, Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-03-16 [2016-04-17], （原始内容存档于2016-04-14） 
  118. ^ Burger PH, Goecke TW, Fasching PA, Moll G, Heinrich H, Beckmann MW, Kornhuber J. [How does maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy affect the development of attention deficit/hyperactivity syndrome in the child]. Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie (Review). 2011-09, 79 (9): 500–6. PMID 21739408. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1273360 （德语）. 
  119. ^ Eubig PA, Aguiar A, Schantz SL. Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Environmental Health Perspectives (Review. Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.). 2010-12, 118 (12): 1654–67. PMC 3002184 可免费查阅. PMID 20829149. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901852. 
  120. ^ de Cock M, Maas YG, van de Bor M. Does perinatal exposure to endocrine disruptors induce autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders? Review. Acta Paediatrica (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). 2012-08, 101 (8): 811–8. PMID 22458970. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02693.x. 
  121. ^ Abbott LC, Winzer-Serhan UH. Smoking during pregnancy: lessons learned from epidemiological studies and experimental studies using animal models. Critical Reviews in Toxicology (Review). 2012-04, 42 (4): 279–303. PMID 22394313. doi:10.3109/10408444.2012.658506. 
  122. ^ Thapar A, Cooper M, Jefferies R, Stergiakouli E. What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?. Archives of Disease in Childhood (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). 2012-03, 97 (3): 260–5. PMC 3927422 可免费查阅. PMID 21903599. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-300482. 
  123. ^ Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics (Review). 2008-02, 121 (2): e358–65. PMID 18245408. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1332. 
  124. ^ Ystrom E, Gustavson K, Brandlistuen RE, Knudsen GP, Magnus P, Susser E, Davey Smith G, Stoltenberg C, Surén P, Håberg SE, Hornig M, Lipkin WI, Nordeng H, Reichborn-Kjennerud T. Prenatal Exposure to Acetaminophen and Risk of ADHD. Pediatrics. 2017-11, 140 (5): e20163840. PMC 5654387 可免费查阅. PMID 29084830. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3840. hdl:11250/2465905. 
  125. ^ Wolraich ML. An Association Between Prenatal Acetaminophen Use and ADHD: The Benefits of Large Data Sets. Pediatrics. 2017-11, 140 (5): e20172703. PMID 29084834. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-2703. 
  126. ^ Eme R. ADHD: an integration with pediatric traumatic brain injury. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics (Review). 2012-04, 12 (4): 475–83. PMID 22449218. doi:10.1586/ern.12.15. 
  127. ^ 127.0 127.1 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  128. ^ 128.0 128.1 Millichap JG, Yee MM. The diet factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2012-02, 129 (2): 330–7 [2019-12-03]. PMID 22232312. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2199. （原始内容存档于2015-09-11）. 
  129. ^ 129.0 129.1 129.2 129.3 Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M, Stevenson J, Danckaerts M, van der Oord S, Döpfner M, Dittmann RW, Simonoff E, Zuddas A, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Coghill D, Hollis C, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Wong IC, Sergeant J. Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2013-03, 170 (3): 275–89. PMID 23360949. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12070991. Free fatty acid supplementation and artificial food color exclusions appear to have beneficial effects on ADHD symptoms, although the effect of the former are small and those of the latter may be limited to ADHD patients with food sensitivities... 
  130. ^ Tomaska LD, Brooke-Taylor S. Food Additives – General. Motarjemi Y, Moy GG, Todd EC (编). Encyclopedia of Food Safety 3 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press: 449. 2014. ISBN 978-0-12-378613-5. OCLC 865335120. 
  131. ^ FDA, Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee: Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children (PDF), U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 2011-03 [2019-12-03], （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-11-06） 
  132. ^ 132.0 132.1 Nigg JT, Holton K. Restriction and elimination diets in ADHD treatment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Review). 2014-10, 23 (4): 937–53. PMC 4322780 可免费查阅. PMID 25220094. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010. an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response. 
  133. ^ Mental health of children and adolescents (PDF). 2005-01-15 [2011-10-13]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2009-10-24）. 
  134. ^ Parens E, Johnston J. Facts, values, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2009-01, 3 (1): 1. PMC 2637252 可免费查阅. PMID 19152690. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-1. 
  135. ^ Szasz T. Psychiatric Medicine: Disorder. Pharmacracy: medicine and politics in America. Westport, CT: Praeger. 2001: 101. ISBN 978-0-275-97196-0 –通过Google Books. Mental diseases are invented and then given a name, for example attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 
  136. ^ Holland, Josephine; Sayal, Kapil. Relative age and ADHD symptoms, diagnosis and medication: a systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2018-10-06 [2019-12-03]. ISSN 1435-165X. PMID 30293121. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1229-6. （原始内容存档于2020-05-13）. 
  137. ^ Parritz R. Disorders of Childhood: Development and Psychopathology. Cengage Learning. 2013: 151. ISBN 978-1-285-09606-3. 
  138. ^ 138.0 138.1 [110] Stimulants for ADHD in children: Revisited | Therapeutics Initiative. 2018-05-28 [2018-07-06]. （原始内容存档于2021-01-30）. 
  139. ^ Stockman JA. Year Book of Pediatrics 2014 E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2016: 163 [2019-12-03]. ISBN 9780323265270. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22） （英语）. 
  140. ^ 140.0 140.1 140.2 140.3 140.4 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapters 10 and 13. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention. 
  141. ^ Krain AL, Castellanos FX. Brain development and ADHD. Clin Psychol Rev. 2006-08, 26 (4): 433–444. PMID 16480802. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005. 
  142. ^ 142.0 142.1 142.2 Chandler DJ, Waterhouse BD, Gao WJ. New perspectives on catecholaminergic regulation of executive circuits: evidence for independent modulation of prefrontal functions by midbrain dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons. Front. Neural Circuits. 2014-05, 8: 53. PMC 4033238 可免费查阅. PMID 24904299. doi:10.3389/fncir.2014.00053. 
  143. ^ 143.0 143.1 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 148, 154–157. ISBN 9780071481274. 
    NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
  144. ^ Castellanos FX, Proal E. Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal-striatal model. Trends Cogn. Sci. (Regul. Ed.). 2012-01, 16 (1): 17–26. PMC 3272832 可免费查阅. PMID 22169776. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.007. Recent conceptualizations of ADHD have taken seriously the distributed nature of neuronal processing [10,11,35,36]. Most of the candidate networks have focused on prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar circuits, although other posterior regions are also being proposed [10]. 
  145. ^ Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C, Proal E, Di Martino A, Milham MP, Castellanos FX. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. Am J Psychiatry. 2012-10, 169 (10): 1038–1055. PMC 3879048 可免费查阅. PMID 22983386. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521. 
  146. ^ Dresel, S; Krause, J; Krause, KH; LaFougere, C; Brinkbäumer, K; Kung, HF; Hahn, K; Tatsch, K. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: binding of [99mTc]TRODAT-1 to the dopamine transporter before and after methylphenidate treatment.. European journal of nuclear medicine. 2000, 27 (10): 1518–24. ISSN 0340-6997. PMID 11083541. 
  147. ^ Krause, KH; Dresel, SH; Krause, J; la Fougere, C; Ackenheil, M. The dopamine transporter and neuroimaging in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews. 2003, 27 (7): 605–13. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 14624805. 
  148. ^ Bymaster, F. Atomoxetine Increases Extracellular Levels of Norepinephrine and Dopamine in Prefrontal Cortex of Rat A Potential Mechanism for Efficacy in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology (Springer Nature). 2002, 27 (5): 699–711 [2017-02-17]. doi:10.1016/s0893-133x(02)00346-9. The selective norepinephrine (NE) transporter inhibitor atomoxetine (formerly called tomoxetine or LY139603) has been shown to alleviate symptoms in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). 
  149. ^ Faraone, Stephen V. The pharmacology of amphetamine and methylphenidate: Relevance to the neurobiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other psychiatric comorbidities. Neuroscience and biobehavioral reviews (Elsevier BV). 2018, 87: 255–270. ISSN 0149-7634. PMID 29428394. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.001. Although a substantial amount of research has focused on dopamine (DA) and norepinephrine (NE), ADHD has also been linked to dysfunction in serotonin (5hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]), acetylcholine (ACH), opioid, and glutamate (GLU) pathways (Cortese, 2012; Maltezos et al., 2014; Blum et al., 2008; Potter et al., 2014; Elia et al., 2011). The alterations in these neurotransmitter systems affect the function of brain structures that moderate executive function, working memory, emotional regulation, and reward processing (Fig. 1) (Faraone et al., 2015). 
  150. ^ Cortese S. The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): what every clinician should know. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 2012-09, 16 (5): 422–33. PMID 22306277. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.01.009. 
  151. ^ Lesch KP, Merker S, Reif A, Novak M. Dances with black widow spiders: dysregulation of glutamate signalling enters centre stage in ADHD. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2013-06, 23 (6): 479–91. PMID 22939004. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.013. 
  152. ^ Shaw M, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Young S, Kahle J, Woods AG, Arnold LE. A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine. 2012-09, 10: 99. PMC 3520745 可免费查阅. PMID 22947230. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-99. 
  153. ^ Bidwell LC, McClernon FJ, Kollins SH. Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 2011-08, 99 (2): 262–74. PMC 3353150 可免费查阅. PMID 21596055. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.05.002. 
  154. ^ 154.0 154.1 Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V, Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underestimated in patients with ADHD? A review of the literature. Postgraduate Medicine. 2013-07, 125 (4): 47–52. PMID 23933893. doi:10.3810/pgm.2013.07.2677. Behavioral studies show altered processing of reinforcement and incentives in children with ADHD. These children respond more impulsively to rewards and choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed incentives. Interestingly, a high intensity of reinforcement is effective in improving task performance in children with ADHD. Pharmacotherapy may also improve task persistence in these children. ... Previous studies suggest that a clinical approach using interventions to improve motivational processes in patients with ADHD may improve outcomes as children with ADHD transition into adolescence and adulthood. 
  155. ^ Fabiano GA, Pelham WE, Coles EK, Gnagy EM, Chronis-Tuscano A, O'Connor BC. A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review. 2009-03, 29 (2): 129–40. PMID 19131150. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. 
  156. ^ Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Barker A, Corr L, Wheeler A, Madaan V. Review of pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder for the general psychiatrist. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2009-03, 32 (1): 39–56. PMID 19248915. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.001. 
  157. ^ Evans SW, Owens JS, Bunford N. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 2014, 43 (4): 527–51. PMC 4025987 可免费查阅. PMID 24245813. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850700. 
  158. ^ Daley D, Van Der Oord S, Ferrin M, Cortese S, Danckaerts M, Doepfner M, Van den Hoofdakker BJ, Coghill D, Thompson M, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Buitelaar J, Dittmann RW, Hollis C, Holtmann M, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Rothenberger A, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Soutullo C, Steinhausen HC, Stringaris A, Taylor E, Wong IC, Zuddas A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Practitioner Review: Current best practice in the use of parent training and other behavioural interventions in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2017-10, 59 (9): 932–947 [2019-11-21]. PMID 29083042. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12825. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2019-04-04）. 
  159. ^ Arns M, de Ridder S, Strehl U, Breteler M, Coenen A. Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. 2009-07, 40 (3): 180–9. PMID 19715181. doi:10.1177/155005940904000311. 
  160. ^ Cortese S, Ferrin M, Brandeis D, Holtmann M, Aggensteiner P, Daley D, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Stevenson J, Stringaris A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Meta-Analysis of Clinical and Neuropsychological Outcomes From Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-06, 55 (6): 444–55. PMID 27238063. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.03.007. hdl:1854/LU-8123796. 
  161. ^ Bjornstad G, Montgomery P. Bjornstad GJ , 编. Family therapy for attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005-04, (2): CD005042. PMID 15846741. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005042.pub2. 
  162. ^ Turkington, Carol; Harris, Joseph. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Encyclopedia of the Brain and Brain Disorders. Infobase Publishing: 47. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4381-2703-3 –通过Google Books. 
  163. ^ Mikami AY. The importance of friendship for youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. 2010-06, 13 (2): 181–98. PMC 2921569 可免费查阅. PMID 20490677. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0067-y. 
  164. ^ 164.0 164.1 164.2 164.3 164.4 Den Heijer AE, Groen Y, Tucha L, Fuermaier AB, Koerts J, Lange KW, Thome J, Tucha O. Sweat it out? The effects of physical exercise on cognition and behavior in children and adults with ADHD: a systematic literature review. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2017-02, 124 (Suppl 1): 3–26. PMC 5281644 可免费查阅. PMID 27400928. doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1593-7. Beneficial chronic effects of cardio exercise were found on various functions as well, including executive functions, attention and behavior. 
  165. ^ 165.0 165.1 Kamp CF, Sperlich B, Holmberg HC. Exercise reduces the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and improves social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters. Acta Paediatrica. 2014-07, 103 (7): 709–14. PMID 24612421. doi:10.1111/apa.12628. We may conclude that all different types of exercise ... attenuate the characteristic symptoms of ADHD and improve social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters without any undesirable side effects. Available reports do not reveal which type, intensity, duration and frequency of exercise is most effective 
  166. ^ 166.0 166.1 Rommel AS, Halperin JM, Mill J, Asherson P, Kuntsi J. Protection from genetic diathesis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: possible complementary roles of exercise. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013-09, 52 (9): 900–10. PMC 4257065 可免费查阅. PMID 23972692. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.018. The findings from these studies provide some support for the notion that exercise has the potential to act as a protective factor for ADHD. 
  167. ^ 167.0 167.1 167.2 Wigal SB. Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults. CNS Drugs. 2009,. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. PMID 19621975. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. 
  168. ^ 168.0 168.1 Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M. Castells X , 编. Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011-06, (6): CD007813. PMID 21678370. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub2. 
  169. ^ Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V. The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 2013-09, 6: 87–99. PMC 3785407 可免费查阅. PMID 24082796. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S49114. Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions, and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months. However, the effect size may decrease beyond this period. ... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases compared with placebo controls, in the short term.22 
  170. ^ Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, Nilausen TD, Skoog M, Holmskov M, et al. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015-11, 11 (11): CD009885. PMID 26599576. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2. 
  171. ^ 171.0 171.1 Ruiz-Goikoetxea M, Cortese S, Aznarez-Sanado M, Magallón S, Alvarez Zallo N, Luis EO, de Castro-Manglano P, Soutullo C, Arrondo G. Risk of unintentional injuries in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact of ADHD medications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2018-01, 84: 63–71. PMID 29162520. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.007. 
  172. ^ Childress AC, Sallee FR. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today. 2012-03, 48 (3): 207–17. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. 
  173. ^ 173.0 173.1 McDonagh MS, Peterson K, Thakurta S, Low A. Drug Class Review: Pharmacologic Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Drug Class Reviews. United States Library of Medicine. 2011-12 [2019-11-21]. PMID 22420008. （原始内容存档于2016-08-31）. 
  174. ^ Prasad V, Brogan E, Mulvaney C, Grainge M, Stanton W, Sayal K. How effective are drug treatments for children with ADHD at improving on-task behaviour and academic achievement in the school classroom? A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2013-04, 22 (4): 203–16. PMID 23179416. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0346-x. 
  175. ^ 175.0 175.1 Kiely B, Adesman A. What we do not know about ADHD… yet. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2015-06, 27 (3): 395–404. PMID 25888152. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000229. In addition, a consensus has not been reached on the optimal diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Moreover, the benefits and long-term effects of medical and complementary therapies for this disorder continue to be debated. These gaps in knowledge hinder the ability of clinicians to effectively recognize and treat ADHD. 
  176. ^ Hazell P. The challenges to demonstrating long-term effects of psychostimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. 2011-07, 24 (4): 286–90. PMID 21519262. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834742db. 
  177. ^ Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K. Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013-02, 70 (2): 185–98. PMID 23247506. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277. 
  178. ^ Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J. Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2013-09, 74 (9): 902–17. PMC 3801446 可免费查阅. PMID 24107764. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08287. 
  179. ^ Frodl T, Skokauskas N. Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. 2012-02, 125 (2): 114–26. PMID 22118249. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x. Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. 
  180. ^ Cortese, Samuele; Adamo, Nicoletta; Del Giovane, Cinzia; Mohr-Jensen, Christina; Hayes, Adrian J; Carucci, Sara; Atkinson, Lauren Z; Tessari, Luca; Banaschewski, Tobias; Coghill, David; Hollis, Chris; Simonoff, Emily; Zuddas, Alessandro; Barbui, Corrado; Purgato, Marianna; Steinhausen, Hans-Christoph; Shokraneh, Farhad; Xia, Jun; Cipriani, Andrea. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. 2018-09, 5 (9): 727–738. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4. 
  181. ^ Greenhill LL, Posner K, Vaughan BS, Kratochvil CJ. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2008-04, 17 (2): 347–66, ix. PMID 18295150. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.004. 
  182. ^ Stevens JR, Wilens TE, Stern TA. Using stimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical approaches and challenges. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2013, 15 (2). PMC 3733520 可免费查阅. PMID 23930227. doi:10.4088/PCC.12f01472. 
  183. ^ Young, Joel L. Individualizing Treatment for Adult ADHD: An Evidence-Based Guideline. Medscape. 2010 [2016-06-19]. （原始内容存档于2015-05-08）. 
  184. ^ Biederman, Joseph. New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Medscape. 2003 [2016-06-19]. （原始内容存档于2003-12-07）. As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day....
    In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.     
  185. ^ Kessler S. Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Southern Medical Journal. 1996-01, 89 (1): 33–8. PMID 8545689. doi:10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005. 
  186. ^ 186.0 186.1 Storebø OJ, Pedersen N, Ramstad E, Kielsholm ML, Nielsen SS, Krogh HB, Moreira-Maia CR, Magnusson FL, Holmskov M, Gerner T, Skoog M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Håkonsen SJ, Aagaard L, Simonsen E, Gluud C. Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2018-05, 5: CD012069. PMID 29744873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012069.pub2. 
  187. ^ 187.0 187.1 187.2 Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W. Shoptaw SJ, Ali R , 编. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2009-01, (1): CD003026. PMID 19160215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3. A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention ...
    About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ...
    Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.     
  188. ^ Adderall XR Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. 2013-12 [2013-12-30]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-12-30）. Treatment-emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. ... In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (4 patients with events out of 3482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients. 
  189. ^ Mosholder AD, Gelperin K, Hammad TA, Phelan K, Johann-Liang R. Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children. Pediatrics. 2009-02, 123 (2): 611–6. PMID 19171629. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0185. 
  190. ^ Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B. Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: report of 3 new cases and review of the literature. Clinical Neuropharmacology. 2010-07, 33 (4): 204–6. PMID 20571380. doi:10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181e29174. 
  191. ^ van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK. To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended?. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011-08, 21 (8): 584–99. PMID 21530185. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008. 
  192. ^ Ibrahim K, Donyai P. Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2015-07, 19 (7): 551–68 [2019-11-21]. PMID 25253684. doi:10.1177/1087054714548035. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-06-30）. 
  193. ^ 193.0 193.1 193.2 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Sydor A, Brown RY , 编. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 323, 368. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse. ... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction 
  194. ^ Oregon Health & Science University. Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Portland, Oregon: United States National Library of Medicine. 2009 [2014-01-17]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-08）. 
  195. ^ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B. The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2006-09, 20 (5): 602–10 [2019-11-21]. PMID 16478756. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. （原始内容存档于2009-08-15）. 
  196. ^ Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M. Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2012-01, 51 (1): 86–97.e8. PMC 4321798 可免费查阅. PMID 22176942. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015. 
  197. ^ Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Rodrigues Pereira R. Diet and ADHD, Reviewing the Evidence: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses of Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials Evaluating the Efficacy of Diet Interventions on the Behavior of Children with ADHD. PLoS One (Systematic Review). 2017-01, 12 (1): e0169277. PMC 5266211 可免费查阅. PMID 28121994. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169277. 开放获取
  198. ^ Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D. The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny. 2012, 63 (2): 127–34. PMID 22928358. 
  199. ^ Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA. Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. 2005-08, 15 (4): 619–27. PMID 16190793. doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.619. hdl:1811/51593. 
  200. ^ Bloch MH, Mulqueen J. Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 2014-10, 23 (4): 883–97. PMC 4170184 可免费查阅. PMID 25220092. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002. 
  201. ^ Krause J. SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 2008-04, 8 (4): 611–25. PMID 18416663. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.4.611. Zinc binds at ... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm. 
  202. ^ Bloch MH, Qawasmi A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2011-10, 50 (10): 991–1000. PMC 3625948 可免费查阅. PMID 21961774. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008. 
  203. ^ Königs A, Kiliaan AJ. Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. July 2016, 12: 1869–82. PMC 4968854 可免费查阅. PMID 27555775. doi:10.2147/NDT.S68652. 
  204. ^ Approximate Prevalence Distribution of the Subtypes of ADHD as cited by Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD. New York, NY: Routledge. 2008.
  205. ^ Ramsay, J. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult ADHD : an integrative psychosocial and medical approach. New York: Routledge. 2015. ISBN 0-415-81591-6. OCLC 876336915. 
  206. ^ Lipkin, Paul H.; Mostofsky, Stewart. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurobiology of Disease. Elsevier. 2007: 631–639. ISBN 978-0-12-088592-3. doi:10.1016/b978-012088592-3/50059-1. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common developmental disorder of childhood, affecting approximately 3–9% of schoolchildren [1,2]. 
  207. ^ Thomas, R.; Sanders, S.; Doust, J.; Beller, E.; Glasziou, P. Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PEDIATRICS (secondary source or tertiary source) (American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)). 2015, 135 (4): e994–e1001 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3482. 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 6.7 to 7.8) 
  208. ^ Kessler, Ronald C.; Adler, Lenard; Barkley, Russell; Biederman, Joseph; Conners, C. Keith; Demler, Olga; Faraone, Stephen V.; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Howes, Mary J.; Secnik, Kristina; Spencer, Thomas; Ustun, T. Bedirhan; Walters, Ellen E.; Zaslavsky, Alan M. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. The American journal of psychiatry. 1963-06-08, 163 (4) [2018-09-26]. PMID 16585449. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716. （原始内容存档于2021-05-25）. 
  209. ^ RC, Kessler; Al., Et. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. - PubMed. NCBI. 2018-09-26 [2018-09-26]. （原始内容存档于2020-05-19）. 
  210. ^ TSCAP. 臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會新聞稿20160603. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-30）. 
  211. ^ Norén Selinus, E.; Molero, Y.; Lichtenstein, P.; Anckarsäter, H.; Lundström, S.; Bottai, M.; Hellner Gumpert, C. Subthreshold and threshold attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in childhood: psychosocial outcomes in adolescence in boys and girls. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (Wiley-Blackwell). 2016-10-07, 134 (6): 533–545. ISSN 0001-690X. doi:10.1111/acps.12655. 
  212. ^ Biederman, Joseph; Faraone, Stephen V. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease (Ovid Technologies (Wolters Kluwer Health)). 2004, 192 (7): 453–454. ISSN 0022-3018. doi:10.1097/01.nmd.0000131803.68229.96. 
  213. ^ Polanczyk, Guilherme; de Lima, Maurício Silva; Horta, Bernardo Lessa; Biederman, Joseph; Rohde, Luis Augusto. The Worldwide Prevalence of ADHD: A Systematic Review and Metaregression Analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry (American Psychiatric Publishing). 2007, 164 (6): 942–948. ISSN 0002-953X. doi:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.942. 
  214. ^ 214.0 214.1 Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 2007-06, 164 (6): 942–8. PMID 17541055. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. 
  215. ^ Jones, edited by Ming Tsuang, Mauricio Tohen, Peter B. Textbook of psychiatric epidemiology 3rd. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. : 450 [2018-09-16]. ISBN 9780470977408. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  216. ^ 全民健康保險研究資料庫 National Health Insurance Research Database. Taiwan, Republic of China.开放获取. [2017-03-17]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-15）. 
  217. ^ 注意力不足過動症ＡＤＨＤ的第三條路：心動家族. 康健杂志. 2016-10-04 [2017-06-21]. （原始内容存档于2020-11-25） （中文）. “台湾对这个疾病的知识不足，网路民间常流窜1-20年前过时的资料，而真正接受过此疾病诊断及整合式治疗训练的专科医师如儿心科医师又少之又少。”、“ADHD全世界平均盛行率为7.2%，台湾社区研究为7.5%，而台湾健保资料库研究显示只有2.3%接受诊断，1.6%用药，1%的人接受足够时间完整的治疗，所以可了解有许多人求助无门因而情况日益恶化。 ” 
  218. ^ Domenic Greco, PhD. Is Prevalence of ADD/ADHD the Same in the U.S., Europe, and Japan?. 2012-09-10 [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档于2020-07-03）. Japan reports a 7% of school-aged children have ADD/ADHD. 
  219. ^ Park, Subin; Cho, Maeng Je; Chang, Sung Man; Jeon, Hong Jin; Cho, Seong-Jin; Kim, Byung-Soo; Bae, Jae Nam; Wang, Hee-Ryung; Ahn, Joon Ho; Hong, Jin Pyo. Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of adult ADHD symptoms in Korea: Results of the Korean epidemiologic catchment area study. Psychiatry Research (Elsevier BV). 2011, 186 (2-3): 378–383 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.047. In the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, 4.4% of 3199 subjects aged 18 to 44 years met the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD (Kessler et al., 2006). The acceptance of ADHD symptoms in adults, because the prevalence rates of ADHD in Korean school-age children are similar to the rates reported in Western countries (Kim, 2002). 
  220. ^ Pham, Hoai Danh; Nguyen, Huu Bao Han; Tran, Diep Tuan. Prevalence of ADHD in primary school children in Vinh Long, Vietnam. Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society (Wiley). 2015-08-19, 57 (5): 856–859. ISSN 1328-8067. PMID 25864909. doi:10.1111/ped.12656. 
  221. ^ Wang, Tingting; Liu, Kaihua; Li, Zhanzhan; Xu, Yang; Liu, Yuan; Shi, Wenpei; Chen, Lizhang. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry (systematic review, meta-analysis (secondary source)). 2017, 17 (1). ISSN 1471-244X. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1187-9. 
  222. ^ 陈国龄. Child with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 認識注意力不足 /過度活躍症 (PDF). 中华人民共和国香港特别行政区政府教育局 The government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of People's Republic of China. [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-29）. 
  223. ^ Davis, J. Mark; Lao, Ian Leong. Comparison of the Level and Prevalence of ADHD Symptoms in Macao (China) and U.S. University Students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology (Informa UK Limited). 2013, 1 (4): 269–277 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1080/21683603.2013.804469. 
  224. ^ 224.0 224.1 224.2 224.3 224.4 ADHD Throughout the Years (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. [2013-08-02]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-08-07）. 
  225. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline (PDF). NHS. 2008-09-24 [2018-12-26]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2014-02-25）. 
  226. ^ Dalsgaard, S. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2013-02,. 22 Suppl 1: S43–8. PMID 23202886. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0360-z. 
  227. ^ Palmer ED, Finger S. An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798). Child and Adolescent Mental Health. 2001-05, 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. 
  228. ^ Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. 1798: 271 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9780404082123. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  229. ^ An Early Description of ADHD (Inattentive Subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and `Mental Restlessness'（1798）Child and Adolescent Mental Health[dead link]，Volume 6, Number 2, May 2001 , pp. 66–73 (8)
  230. ^ Millichap, J. Gordon. Chapter 1: Definition and History of ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. Springer Science. 2010: 2–3 [2021-02-06]. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5. （原始内容存档于2020-12-22）. 
  231. ^ Weiss M. ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. JHU Press. 2010 [2014-01-17]. ISBN 9781421401317. （原始内容存档于2020-09-06）. 
  232. ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA. Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate. Human Psychopharmacology. 2009-02, 24 (1): 1–17. PMC 2629554 可免费查阅. PMID 19051222. doi:10.1002/hup.992. 
  233. ^ Rasmussen N. Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950. J . Hist. Med. Allied Sci. 2006-07, 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. 
  234. ^ Barkley, Russell A; Fischer, Mariellen; Smallish, Lori; Fletcher, Kenneth. Young Adult Outcome of Hyperactive Children: Adaptive Functioning in Major Life Activities. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2006, 45 (2): 192–202. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 16429090. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000189134.97436.e2. 
  235. ^ BIEDERMAN, JOSEPH; MONUTEAUX, MICHAEL C.; MICK, ERIC; SPENCER, THOMAS; WILENS, TIMOTHY E.; SILVA, JULIE M.; SNYDER, LINDSEY E.; FARAONE, STEPHEN V. Young adult outcome of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a controlled 10-year follow-up study. Psychological medicine (Cambridge University Press (CUP)). 2006-01-18, 36 (02): 167. ISSN 0033-2917. PMID 16420713. doi:10.1017/s0033291705006410. 
  236. ^ Mannuzza, Salvatore; Klein, Rachel G.; Bessler, Abrah; Malloy, Patricia; LaPadula, Maria. Adult Psychiatric Status of Hyperactive Boys Grown Up. The American journal of psychiatry (American Psychiatric Publishing). 1998, 155 (4): 493–498. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 9545994. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.4.493. 
  237. ^ Biederman, Joseph; Mick, Eric; Fried, Ronna; Wilner, Nicole; Spencer, Thomas J.; Faraone, Stephen V. Are stimulants effective in the treatment of executive function deficits? Results from a randomized double blind study of OROS-methylphenidate in adults with ADHD. European neuropsychopharmacology : the journal of the European College of Neuropsychopharmacology (Elsevier BV). 2011, 21 (7): 508–515. ISSN 0924-977X. PMID 21303732. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2010.11.005. 
  238. ^ Faraone SV, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Biederman J, Buitelaar JK, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rohde LA, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Tannock R, Franke B. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Nature Reviews. Disease Primers (Review). 2015-08, 1: 15020 [2018-12-31]. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.497.1346 可免费查阅. PMID 27189265. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.20. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-07-28）. 
  239. ^ Storebø, Ole Jakob; Ramstad, Erica; Krogh, Helle B.; Nilausen, Trine Danvad; Skoog, Maria; Holmskov, Mathilde; Rosendal, Susanne; Groth, Camilla; Magnusson, Frederik L; Moreira-Maia, Carlos R; Gillies, Donna; Buch Rasmussen, Kirsten; Gauci, Dorothy; Zwi, Morris; Kirubakaran, Richard; Forsbøl, Bente; Simonsen, Erik; Gluud, Christian, Storebø, Ole Jakob , 编, Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (systematic review) (Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd), 2015-11-25, (11), PMID 26599576, doi:10.1002/14651858.cd009885.pub2 
  240. ^ Mannuzza, S; Klein, RG. Long-term prognosis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America. 2000, 9 (3): 711–26. ISSN 1056-4993. PMID 10944664. 
  241. ^ Molina, Brooke S.G.; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Swanson, James M.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Vitiello, Benedetto; Jensen, Peter S.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Hoza, Betsy; Hechtman, Lily; Abikoff, Howard B.; Elliott, Glen R.; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Wells, Karen C.; Wigal, Timothy; Gibbons, Robert D.; Hur, Kwan; Houck, Patricia R. The MTA at 8 Years: Prospective Follow-up of Children Treated for Combined-Type ADHD in a Multisite Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2009, 48 (5): 484–500. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 3063150 可免费查阅. PMID 19318991. doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31819c23d0. 
  242. ^ Hechtman, Lily; Swanson, James M.; Sibley, Margaret H.; Stehli, Annamarie; Owens, Elizabeth B.; Mitchell, John T.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Molina, Brooke S.G.; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Jensen, Peter S.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Perez Algorta, Guillermo; Howard, Andrea L.; Hoza, Betsy; Etcovitch, Joy; Houssais, Sylviane; Lakes, Kimberley D.; Nichols, J. Quyen; Vitiello, Benedetto; Severe, Joanne B.; Jensen, Peter S.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Hoagwood, Kimberly; Richters, John; Vereen, Donald; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Elliott, Glen R.; Wells, Karen C.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Murray, Desiree W.; Conners, C. Keith; March, John; Swanson, James; Wigal, Timothy; Cantwell, Dennis P.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Hechtman, Lily; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Molina, Brooke; Hoza, Betsy; Pelham, William E.; Gibbons, Robert D.; Marcus, Sue; Hur, Kwan; Kraemer, Helena C.; Hanley, Thomas; Stern, Karen. Functional Adult Outcomes 16 Years After Childhood Diagnosis of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: MTA Results. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2016, 55 (11): 945–952.e2. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 5113724 可免费查阅. PMID 27806862. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.07.774. 
  243. ^ Roy, Arunima; Hechtman, Lily; Arnold, L. Eugene; Swanson, James M.; Molina, Brooke S.G.; Sibley, Margaret H.; Howard, Andrea L.; Vitiello, Benedetto; Severe, Joanne B.; Jensen, Peter S.; Arnold, L. Eugene; Hoagwood, Kimberly; Richters, John; Vereen, Donald; Hinshaw, Stephen P.; Elliott, Glen R.; Wells, Karen C.; Epstein, Jeffery N.; Murray, Desiree W.; Conners, C. Keith; March, John; Swanson, James; Wigal, Timothy; Cantwell, Dennis P.; Abikoff, Howard B.; Hechtman, Lily; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Newcorn, Jeffrey H.; Molina, Brooke; Hoza, Betsy; Pelham, William E.; Gibbons, Robert D.; Marcus, Sue; Hur, Kwan; Kraemer, Helena C.; Hanley, Thomas; Stern, Karen. Childhood Predictors of Adult Functional Outcomes in the Multimodal Treatment Study of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (MTA). Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 2017, 56 (8): 687–695.e7. ISSN 0890-8567. PMC 5555165 可免费查阅. PMID 28735698. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2017.05.020. 
  244. ^ RICHTERS, JOHN E.; ARNOLD, L. EUGENE; JENSEN, PETER S.; ABIKOFF, HOWARD; CONNERS, C. KEITH; GREENHILL, LAURENCE L.; HECHTMAN, LILY; HINSHAW, STEPHEN P.; PELHAM, WILLIAM E.; SWANSON, JAMES M. NIMH Collaborative Multisite Multimodal Treatment Study of Children with ADHD: I. Background and Rationale. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (Elsevier BV). 1995, 34 (8): 987–1000. ISSN 0890-8567. PMID 7665456. doi:10.1097/00004583-199508000-00008. 
  245. ^ CELEBRATION: Love & Bliss FLOW WITH ME..! 4/14/14. Eliza Dushku's official website. [2016-10-15]. 
  246. ^ 林莹真. 過動男童遭霸凌一年半　學校上吊輕生「妹目睹崩潰痛哭」. TVBS. 2018-09-26 [2018-09-28]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29） （中文）. 
  247. ^ 红豆Q粉粿. 放學前先遮傷口！過動症男孩瞞著父母獨忍霸凌　自殺當天微笑上學. 键盘大柠檬. 2018-09-14 [2018-09-28]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29） （中文）. 
  248. ^ 'Bullied' schoolboy, 14, was found hanged in school toilet by his sister as dad calls for headteacher's resignation. The Sun. 2018-09-20 [2018-09-29]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-29）. 
  249. ^ Chen, Vincent Chin-Hung; Chan, Hsiang-Lin; Wu, Shu-I; Lee, Meng; Lu, Mong-Liang; Liang, Hsin-Yi; Dewey, Michael E.; Stewart, Robert; Lee, Charles Tzu-Chi. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Mortality Risk in Taiwan. JAMA network open (American Medical Association (AMA)). 2019-08-07, 2 (8): e198714. ISSN 2574-3805. PMID 31390039. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.8714. 
  250. ^ 吕苡榕. 健保給付制度造成醫療資源分配傾斜. Taiwan: 端传媒. 2017-04-25 [2017-04-25]. （原始内容存档于2017-05-01）. 健保给付制度困境令孩童就医难\ 除了诊断的时间受到局限，行为治疗、亲职教育等资源更是少得可怜。医院的亲子团体治疗每一期排队至少要排上四个月到半年才有可能有名额...... 
  251. ^ 251.0 251.1 专注不足/过度活耀协会. 《立法是否保障特殊教育需要學生的出路？》論壇. Hong Kong, China. 2015-03-29 [2017-03-15]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-05）. 
  252. ^ 252.0 252.1 Guidelines May Have Helped Curb ADHD Diagnoses in Preschoolers. MedlinePlus.gov. HealthDay. 2016-11-15 [2017-01-01]. （原始内容存档于2016-12-25）. Still, too few with disorder receive behavior therapy, child psychologist says. 
  253. ^ NIH awards nearly $100 million for Autism Centers of Excellence program. National Institutes of Health (NIH). 2017-09-06 [2017-11-08]. （原始内容存档于2017-11-09）. Duke University, Durham, North Carolina – Understanding and potentially treating ASD-ADHD combination.
    An estimated 40 to 60 percent of people with ASD have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), which encompasses such symptoms as difficulty paying attention, problems controlling behavior and hyperactivity. Co-investigators Geraldine Dawson, Ph.D., and Scott Kollins, Ph.D., aim to learn how ADHD may influence the diagnosis and treatment of autism and plan to observe children who have ASD alone, ASD and ADHD, and ADHD alone and compare them to typically developing children. They will also test whether the stimulant medication used to treat ADHD will help children with both conditions.     
  254. ^ WHO. Pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions for children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 世界卫生组织 Wolrd Health Organization. [2017-02-22]. （原始内容存档于2017-01-08） （美国英语）. 
  255. ^ 世界卫生组织. 注意缺陷多动障碍儿童的药物和非药物介入/干预. 世界卫生组织. [2017-02-22]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-29） （中文（简体））. 
  256. ^ 亞洲不應使用西方精神科對於注意力不足過動症（ADHD）的診斷，及興奮劑處方的治療. [2017-09-02]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-02）. 
  257. ^ 郑毅; 刘靖. 《中国注意缺陷多动障碍防治指南》第二版解读. 中华精神科杂志. 2016, 0 (3): p.132–135 [2017-03-04]. （原始内容存档于2017-03-04）. 
  258. ^ 【校園欺凌】產後抑鬱媽媽：過度活躍的七歲兒子，最怕他自殺. 明周文化. 2018-03-19 [2018-03-31]. （原始内容存档于2018-03-29） （中文）. 

书目

[编辑]
  • Edward M. Hallowell; John J. Ratey. 分心不是我的錯（增訂版）：正確診療ADD，重建有計畫的生活方式 Driven to Distraction. 远流出版. 2015-09-01. ISBN 978-957-32-7700-2. 
  • Edward M. Hallowell, M.D.; John J. Ratey, M.D. 《分心也有好成績》. 丁凡译. 台北: 远流出版社. 2006. ISBN 9573259311. 
  • 高淑芬; 陈劭芊. 注意力不足過動症. 卫生福利部精神疾病卫教丛书. 中华民国卫生福利部. 2015-06 [2018-02-27]. ISBN 9789860454154. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-02-19） （中文（繁体））. 

外部链接

[编辑]
维基共享资源中相关的多媒体资源：注意力不足过动症
检索自“https://wiki.zwnes.eu.org/w/index.php?title=注意力不足過動症&oldid=85241093”