用户:TwinkieCat/第一次世界大战
第一次世界大战 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
点击图片连结至战斗 由左至右,由上至下为: 第一次马恩河战役的德军步兵冲锋、凡尔登战役的法军冲出战壕、索姆河战役的Mark I 坦克、拉马尔迈松战役被法军俘虏的德军战俘、第二次马恩河战役的法军机枪部队、百日攻势中的法国雷诺FT-17坦克 | |||||||
| |||||||
参战方 | |||||||
协约国: | 同盟国: | ||||||
指挥官与领导者 | |||||||
协约国指挥官 |
同盟国指挥官 | ||||||
兵力 | |||||||
|
13,250,000 | ||||||
伤亡与损失 | |||||||
士兵阵亡: 5,525,000 士兵受伤: 12,831,500 士兵失踪: 4,121,000 总计: 22,477,500人阵亡、受伤或失踪 (详情) |
士兵阵亡 4,386,000 士兵受伤: 8,388,000 士兵失踪: 3,629,000 总计: 16,403,000人阵亡、受伤或失踪 (详情) |
第一次世界大战(简称一战、一次大战,或称欧战;英语:World War I;法语:Première guerre mondiale;德语:Erster Weltkrieg;俄语:Первая война)是一场于1914年7月28日至1918年11月11日以欧洲为主战场的大型战争,其包括许多国家,像美国,俄罗斯等,因为地区分部广泛,所以被称为世界大战。当中主要分为两个势力,分别是同盟国和协约国,两个意识型态的分歧,也是这一次世界大战的导火线之一。
在第一次世界大战中,同盟国的主要成员为德意志帝国 、奥匈帝国 、奥斯曼帝国及保加利亚,而协约国则为法国、英国、俄罗斯、意大利、比利时、塞尔维亚、美国、希腊,与后者第二次世界大战的分部稍有不同。
1914年,当时的欧洲大国法国、俄罗斯、英国组成了协约国。现时大部份认为第一次世界大战的开始原于发生在1914年6月28日的萨拉热窝事件,在该事件中,奥匈帝国皇储斐迪南及其妻子索菲亚被塞尔维亚激进青年普林西普刺杀身亡。因此,奥匈帝国于同年7月28日向塞尔维亚宣战,俄罗斯也开始帮助塞尔维亚对抗奥匈。8月4日,两者的联盟引起了德国,法国,英国和他们的殖民地的注意,但意大利在此时仍保持中立。1914年11月,奥斯曼帝国、德国和奥匈帝国组成了同盟国,意大利也于1915年加入协约国的阵营。
面对两条战线的战争,德国在1914年的战略是在六周内集中力量击败法国,然后将他们转移到东线,并打算对俄罗斯采取同样的计划[13]。然而,德国在法国的进攻未能实现这一目标,到1914年底,双方沿着西线对峙,从英吉利海峡延伸到瑞士的一系列战壕线几乎没有变化,直到1917年。相比之下,东线要不稳定得多,奥匈帝国和俄罗斯获得了优势,然后失去了大片领土。其他包括中东战区、意大利战线和巴尔干半岛,将保加利亚、罗马尼亚和希腊在内的重要战略地点卷入战争。
窘境中的德国军方想要彻底打击英法两国海外殖民地与母国之间的联络与毁灭两国经济,最终将局势推向有利自己的胜利,如此的战略思想使得德军于1917年发起无限制潜艇战,加之齐默曼电报事件,在被英国截获的电报中,德国政府同美国以南的墨西哥秘密谈论对美开战条件,一经曝光,迅速激起美国国内的愤怒情绪,最终导致了原本是中立国的美国于1917年4月6日参战。而俄罗斯则于1917年二月革命中推翻延祚300余年的罗曼诺夫王朝,其后以克伦斯基为主导的政府仍然主张继续同德国作战,履行协约国义务,激起广泛民愤,最终于同年十月革命中被推翻。1918年3月3日,得势的苏维埃政权在列宁的授意下签订了布列斯特和约,俄国退出战争。俄国的投降使得原先东线的士兵可以调派至西方战线。补充了大量部队后,德国总参谋部希望能够彻底击败法国和其盟国,发起了春季攻势。尽管在初期取得了成功,但德军于第四次香槟战役中失败,攻势停止。该年8月,法国元帅费迪南·福煦发起百日攻势,彻底击败德国。[14]。
背景
[编辑]第一次世界大战的导火索 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
政治及军事联盟
[编辑]19世纪初,欧洲大国之间的权力一直处于较为平均和脆弱的状态,这段时间也被称为欧洲协调时期[15]。1848年后,这受到各种因素的挑战,包括英国取消所谓的光荣孤立,鄂图曼帝国的衰落和奥托·冯·俾斯麦统治下的普鲁士崛起。1866年普奥战争确立了普鲁士在德国的霸权,而1870-1871年普法战争的胜利使俾斯麦将德意志国家巩固为普鲁士领导下的德意志帝国。为1871年的失败或复仇主义报仇,收复亚尔萨斯-洛林成为法国未来四十年政策的主要目标[16]。
为了孤立法国,避免两条战线的战争,俾斯麦在奥匈帝国、俄罗斯和德国之间谈判了三帝同盟。俄国在1877-1878年俄土战争中获胜后,由于奥地利担心俄罗斯在巴尔干地区的影响力,国联解散,他们认为该地区具有重要的战略利益。德国和奥匈帝国随后组成了1879年的二国同盟,当义大利于1882年加入时,该同盟成为三国同盟[17]。对于俾斯麦来说,这些协定的目的是通过确保三个帝国解决它们之间的任何争端来孤立法国;当1880年受到英国和法国试图直接与俄罗斯谈判的威胁时,他于1881年改革了同盟,并于1883年和1885年更新。1887年协定失效后,他用再保险条约取而代之,这是德国和俄罗斯之间的秘密协定,如果任何一方受到法国或奥匈帝国的攻击,他将保持中立[18]。
1914年7月30日,当奥匈帝国在其俄罗斯边境以动员令进行常规转发时,俄罗斯下令进行全面动员。自7月28日以来,德国无视英国早些时候的警告暗示,仍然希望奥匈帝国对塞尔维亚的战争可以“本地化”到巴尔干半岛,就东欧而言,德国现在幻想破灭了。7月31日,德国发出了24小时最后通牒,要求俄罗斯停止动员,并发出18小时最后通牒,要求法国承诺在俄罗斯和德国发生战争时保持中立[19]。
不出所料,俄罗斯和法国都忽视了这些要求。8月1日,德国下令进行全面动员,并向俄罗斯宣战,法国也下令全面动员。第二天,德国向卢森堡派遣军队,并要求德国军队从比利时自由通过其中立领土。8月3日,德国向法国宣战。8月3日至4日晚上,德国军队入侵比利时。于是,英国不关心塞尔维亚,也没有明确义务为俄罗斯或法国而战,但明确承诺保卫比利时,于8月4日向德国宣战[19]。
奥匈帝国于8月5日对俄罗斯宣战;塞尔维亚于8月6日对德国宣战;黑山于8月7日对奥匈帝国宣战,8月12日对德国宣战;法国和英国分别于8月10日和8月12日对奥匈帝国宣战;日本于8月23日对德国宣战;奥匈帝国于8月25日对日本宣战,8月28日对比利时宣战[19]。
参考文献
[编辑]- ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ 引用错误:页面正文含有没有分组的
<ref>
标签 - ^ Zuber 2011,第46–49页.
- ^ Sheffield 2002,第251页.
- ^ Clark 2013,第121–152页.
- ^ Zeldin 1977,第117页.
- ^ Keegan 1998,第52页.
- ^ Medlicott 1945,第66–70页.
- ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Britannica WWI.
引用
[编辑]- ^ 美国未批准巴黎和会的任何条约。
- ^ 保加利亚于1915年10月14日加入同盟国。
- ^ 美国于1917年12月7日对奥匈帝国宣战。
- ^ 奥地利被认为是奥匈帝国的继承国之一。
- ^ 美国于1917年4月6日对德国宣战。
- ^ 匈牙利被认为是奥匈帝国的继承国之一。
- ^ 奥斯曼帝国于1914年8月2日同德国达成秘密同盟协定,并于1914年10月29日作为同盟国一方参战。
- ^ 原先计划通过色佛尔条约结束协约国与奥斯曼帝国战事,但奥斯曼帝国从未批准之。在土耳其独立战争后,协约国同奥斯曼帝国继承国土耳其共和国就洛桑条约达成协议。
- ^ 包含法国本土和殖民地
- ^ 包含英国本土和殖民地;不包含印度和自治领
来源
[编辑]- 书籍
- Axelrod, Alan. How America Won World War I. Rowman & Littlefield. 2018. ISBN 978-1-4930-3192-4.
- Ayers, Leonard Porter. The War with Germany: A Statistical Summary. Government Printing Office. 1919.
- Bade, Klaus J.; Brown, Allison (tr.). Migration in European History. The making of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell. 2003. ISBN 978-0-631-18939-8. OCLC 52695573. (translated from the German)
- Baker, Kevin. Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth. Harper's Magazine. June 2006.
- Ball, Alan M. And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-520-20694-6., reviewed in Hegarty, Thomas J. And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918–1930. Canadian Slavonic Papers. March–June 1998. (原始内容存档于9 May 2013). (via Highbeam.com)
- Barrett, Michael B. Prelude to Blitzkrieg: The 1916 Austro-German Campaign in Romania. Indiana University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0253008657.
- Barry, J.M. The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History. Viking Penguin. 2004. ISBN 978-0-670-89473-4.
- Bass, Gary Jonathan. Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 2002: 424. ISBN 978-0-691-09278-2. OCLC 248021790.
- Beckett, Ian. The Great War. Longman. 2007. ISBN 978-1-4058-1252-8.
- Béla, Köpeczi. History of Transylvania. Akadémiai Kiadó. 1998. ISBN 978-84-8371-020-3.
- Blair, Dale. No Quarter: Unlawful Killing and Surrender in the Australian War Experience, 1915–1918. Charnwood, Australia: Ginninderra Press. 2005. ISBN 978-1-74027-291-9. OCLC 62514621.
- Brands, Henry William. T.R.: The Last Romantic. New York: Basic Books. 1997. ISBN 978-0-465-06958-3. OCLC 36954615.
- Braybon, Gail. Evidence, History, and the Great War: Historians and the Impact of 1914–18. Berghahn Books. 2004: 8. ISBN 978-1-57181-801-0.
- Brown, Judith M. Modern India: The Origins of an Asian Democracy. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 1994. ISBN 978-0-19-873113-9.
- Brown, Malcolm. 1918: Year of Victory 1999. Pan. 1998. ISBN 978-0-330-37672-3.
- Butcher, Tim. The Trigger: Hunting the Assassin Who Brought the World to War 2015. Vintage. 2014. ISBN 978-0-09-958133-8.
- Cazacu, Gheorghe. Voluntarii români ardeleni din Rusia în timpul Primului Război Mondial [Transylvanian Romanian volunteers in Russia during the First World War]. Astra Salvensis. 2013, (1): 89–115. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Chickering, Rodger. Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2004. ISBN 978-0-521-83908-2. OCLC 55523473.
- Christie, Norm M. The Canadians at Cambrai and the Canal du Nord, August–September 1918. CEF Books. 1997. ISBN 978-1-896979-18-2.
- Clayton, Anthony. Paths of Glory; the French Army 1914–1918. Cassell. 2003. ISBN 978-0-304-35949-3.
- Clark, Charles Upson. Bessarabia, Russia and Roumania on the Black Sea. New York: Dodd, Mead. 1927 [6 November 2008]. OCLC 150789848. (原始内容存档于8 October 2019).
- Clark, Christopher. The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914. HarperCollins. 2013. ISBN 978-0-06-219922-5.
- Cockfield, Jamie H. With snow on their boots: The tragic odyssey of the Russian Expeditionary Force in France during World War I. Palgrave Macmillan. 1997. ISBN 978-0-312-22082-2.
- Coffman, Edward M. The War to End All Wars: The American Military Experience in World War I 1998. OUP. 1969. ISBN 978-0-19-631724-3.
- Conlon, Joseph M. The historical impact of epidemic typhus (PDF). Montana State University. [21 April 2009]. (原始内容 (PDF)存档于11 June 2010).
- Coogan, Tim. Ireland in the 20th Century. Random House. 2009. ISBN 978-0-09-941522-0.
- Cook, Tim. The politics of surrender: Canadian soldiers and the killing of prisoners in the First World War. The Journal of Military History. 2006, 70 (3): 637–665. S2CID 155051361. doi:10.1353/jmh.2006.0158.
- Cooper, John Milton. Woodrow Wilson: A Biography. Alfred Knopf. 2009. ISBN 978-0-307-26541-8.
- Crampton, R. J. Eastern Europe in the twentieth century. Routledge. 1994. ISBN 978-0-415-05346-4.
- Crisp, Olga. Studies in the Russian Economy before 1914. Palgrave Macmillan. 1976. ISBN 978-0-333-16907-0.
- Cross, Wilbur L. Zeppelins of World War I. New York: Paragon Press. 1991. ISBN 978-1-55778-382-0. OCLC 22860189.
- Crowe, David. The Essentials of European History: 1914 to 1935, World War I and Europe in crisis. Research and Education Association. 2001. ISBN 978-0-87891-710-5.
- DiNardo, Richard. Invasion: The Conquest of Serbia, 1915. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger. 2015. ISBN 978-1-4408-0092-4.
- Damian, Stefan. Volantini di guerra: la lingua romena in Italia nella propaganda del primo conflitto mondiale [War leaflets: the Romanian language in Italy in WWI propaganda]. Orrizonti Culturali Italo-Romeni. 2012, 1. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Djokić, Dejan. Yugoslavism: histories of a failed idea, 1918–1992. London: Hurst. 2003. OCLC 51093251.
- Donko, Wilhelm. A Brief History of the Austrian Navy. epubli GmbH. 2012. ISBN 978-3-8442-2129-9.
- Doughty, Robert A. Pyrrhic victory: French strategy and operations in the Great War. Harvard University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-674-01880-8.
- Dumitru, Laurentiu-Cristian. Preliminaries of Romania's entering the World War I. Bulletin of "Carol I" National Defence University, Bucharest. 2012, 1 [14 March 2022]. (原始内容存档于19 March 2022).
- Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. The Harper's Encyclopedia of Military History 4th. Harper Collins Publishers. 1993. ISBN 978-0-06-270056-8.
- Erickson, Edward J. Ordered to Die: A History of the Ottoman Army in the First World War. Contributions in Military Studies 201. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-313-31516-9. OCLC 43481698.
- Erlikman, Vadim. Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke [Population loss in the 20th century]. Spravochnik. 2004. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Evans, Leslie. Future of Iraq, Israel-Palestine Conflict, and Central Asia Weighed at International Conference. UCLA International Institute. 2005 [30 December 2008]. (原始内容存档于24 May 2008).
- Falls, Cyril Bentham. The First World War. London: Longmans. 1960. ISBN 978-1-84342-272-3. OCLC 460327352.
- Falls, Cyril Bentham. The Great War. New York: Capricorn Books. 1961. OCLC 1088102671.
- Farwell, Byron. The Great War in Africa, 1914–1918. W.W. Norton. 1989. ISBN 978-0-393-30564-7.
- Fay, Sidney B. The Origins of the World War; Volume I 2nd. 1930.
- Ferguson, Niall. The Pity of War. New York: Basic Books. 1999. ISBN 978-0-465-05711-5. OCLC 41124439.
- Ferguson, Niall. The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. 2006. ISBN 978-1-59420-100-4.
- Finestone, Jeffrey; Massie, Robert K. The last courts of Europe. JM Dent & Sons. 1981. ISBN 978-0-460-04519-3.
- Fornassin, Alessio. The Italian Army's Losses in the First World War. Population. 2017, 72 (1): 39–62. doi:10.3917/popu.1701.0039.
- Fromkin, David. A Peace to End All Peace: The Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Creation of the Modern Middle East. New York: Henry Holt and Co. 1989. ISBN 978-0-8050-0857-9.
- Fromkin, David. Europe's Last Summer: Who Started the Great War in 1914?. Alfred A. Knopf. 2004. ISBN 978-0-375-41156-4. OCLC 53937943.
- Gardner, Hall. The Failure to Prevent World War I: The Unexpected Armageddon. Routledge. 2015. ISBN 978-1472430564.
- Gelvin, James L. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-85289-0. OCLC 59879560.
- Grant, R.G. Battle: A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years of Combat. DK Publishing. 2005. ISBN 978-0-7566-5578-5.
- Gray, Randal; Argyle, Christopher. Chronicle of the First World War. New York: Facts on File. 1990. ISBN 978-0-8160-2595-4. OCLC 19398100.
- Gilbert, Martin. First World War. Stoddart Publishing. 1994. ISBN 978-077372848-6.
- Goodspeed, Donald James. The German Wars 1914–1945. New York: Random House; Bonanza. 1985. ISBN 978-0-517-46790-9.
- Gray, Randal. Kaiserschlacht 1918: the final German offensive. Osprey. 1991. ISBN 978-1-85532-157-1.
- Green, John Frederick Norman. Obituary: Albert Ernest Kitson. Geological Society Quarterly Journal. 1938, 94.
- Grotelueschen, Mark Ethan. The AEF Way of War: The American Army and Combat in World War I. Cambridge University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-521-86434-3.
- Halpern, Paul G. A Naval History of World War I. New York: Routledge. 1995. ISBN 978-1-85728-498-0. OCLC 60281302.
- Hardach, Gerd. The First World War, 1914–1918. Allne Lane. 1977. ISBN 978-0-7139-1024-7.
- Harris, J.P. Douglas Haig and the First World War 2009. CUP. 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-89802-7.
- Hartcup, Guy. The War of Invention; Scientific Developments, 1914–18. Brassey's Defence Publishers. 1988. ISBN 978-0-08-033591-9.
- Havighurst, Alfred F. Britain in transition: the twentieth century 4th. University of Chicago Press. 1985. ISBN 978-0-226-31971-1.
- Heller, Charles E. Chemical warfare in World War I: the American experience, 1917–1918. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute. 1984. OCLC 123244486. (原始内容存档于4 July 2007).
- Herwig, Holger. The Failure of German Sea Power, 1914–1945: Mahan, Tirpitz, and Raeder Reconsidered. The International History Review. 1988, 10 (1): 68–105. JSTOR 40107090. doi:10.1080/07075332.1988.9640469.
- Heyman, Neil M. World War I. Guides to historic events of the twentieth century. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0-313-29880-6. OCLC 36292837.
- Hickey, Michael. The Mediterranean Front 1914–1923. The First World War 4. New York: Routledge. 2003: 60–65. ISBN 978-0-415-96844-7. OCLC 52375688.
- Hinterhoff, Eugene. The Campaign in Armenia. Young, Peter (编). Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of World War I ii. New York: Marshall Cavendish. 1984. ISBN 978-0-86307-181-2.
- Holmes, T.M. Absolute Numbers: The Schlieffen Plan as a Critique of German Strategy in 1914. War in History. April 2014, XXI (2): 194, 211. ISSN 1477-0385.
- Hooker, Richard. The Ottomans. Washington State University. 1996. (原始内容存档于8 October 1999).
- Horne, Alistair. The Price of Glory 1993. Penguin. 1964. ISBN 978-0-14-017041-2.
- Horne, John; Kramer, Alan. German Atrocities, 1914: A History of Denial. Yale University Press. 2001. OCLC 47181922.
- Hovannisian, Richard G. Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1967. ISBN 978-0-520-00574-7.
- Howard, N.P. The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918–19. German History. 1993, 11 (2): 161–188. doi:10.1093/gh/11.2.161.
- Hull, Isabel Virginia. Absolute destruction: military culture and the practices of war in Imperial Germany. Cornell University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-8014-7293-0.
- Humphries, Mark Osborne. "Old Wine in New Bottles": A Comparison of British and Canadian Preparations for the Battle of Arras. Hayes, Geoffrey; Iarocci, Andrew; Bechthold, Mike (编). Vimy Ridge: A Canadian Reassessment. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press. 2007. ISBN 978-0-88920-508-6.
- Inglis, David. Vimy Ridge: 1917–1992, A Canadian Myth over Seventy Five Years (PDF). Burnaby: Simon Fraser University. 1995 [23 July 2013]. (原始内容存档 (PDF)于16 September 2018).
- Isaac, Jad; Hosh, Leonardo. Roots of the Water Conflict in the Middle East. University of Waterloo. 7–9 May 1992. (原始内容存档于28 September 2006).
- Jackson, Julian. A Certain Idea of France: The Life of Charles de Gaulle. Allen Lane. 2018. ISBN 978-1-84614-351-9.
- Jelavich, Barbara. Romania in the First World War: The Pre-War Crisis, 1912-1914. The International History Review. 1992, 14 (3): 441–451. JSTOR 40106597. doi:10.1080/07075332.1992.9640619.
- Johnson, James Edgar. Full Circle: The Story of Air Fighting. London: Cassell. 2001. ISBN 978-0-304-35860-1. OCLC 45991828.
- Jones, Howard. Crucible of Power: A History of US Foreign Relations Since 1897. Scholarly Resources Books. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8420-2918-6. OCLC 46640675.
- Kaplan, Robert D. Syria: Identity Crisis. The Atlantic. February 1993 [30 December 2008]. (原始内容存档于24 December 2018).
- Karp, Walter. The Politics of War 1st. 1979. ISBN 978-0-06-012265-2. OCLC 4593327.
- Keegan, John. The First World War. Hutchinson. 1998. ISBN 978-0-09-180178-6.
- Keenan, George. The Fateful Alliance: France, Russia and the Coming of the First World War. Manchester University Press. 1986. ISBN 978-0-7190-1707-0.
- Keene, Jennifer D. World War I. Daily Life Through History Series. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 2006: 5. ISBN 978-0-313-33181-7. OCLC 70883191.
- Kernek, Sterling. The British Government's Reactions to President Wilson's 'Peace' Note of December 1916. The Historical Journal. December 1970, 13 (4): 721–766. JSTOR 2637713. S2CID 159979098. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00009481.
- Kitchen, Martin. Europe Between the Wars. New York: Longman. 2000. ISBN 978-0-582-41869-1. OCLC 247285240. 已忽略未知参数
|orig-date=
(帮助) - Knobler, S. L.; Mack, A.; Mahmoud, A.; Lemon, S. M. (编). The Threat of Pandemic Influenza: Are We Ready? Workshop Summary. Contributors: Institute of Medicine; Board on Global Health; Forum on Microbial Threats. Washington DC: National Academies Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-309-09504-4. OCLC 57422232. PMID 20669448. doi:10.17226/11150.
- Kurlander, Eric. Steffen Bruendel. Volksgemeinschaft oder Volksstaat: Die "Ideen von 1914" und die Neuordnung Deutschlands im Ersten Weltkrieg. H-net. 2006 [17 November 2009]. (原始内容 (Book review)存档于10 June 2007).
- Lehmann, Hartmut; van der Veer, Peter (编). Nation and religion: perspectives on Europe and Asia. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0-691-01232-2. OCLC 39727826.
- Lieven, Dominic. Towards the Flame: Empire, War and the End of Tsarist Russia. Penguin. 2016. ISBN 978-0-14-139974-4.
- Love, Dave. The Second Battle of Ypres, April 1915. Sabretache. May 1996, 26 (4) [20 November 2009]. (原始内容存档于16 September 2018).
- Ludendorff, Erich. My War Memories, 1914–1918. 1919. OCLC 60104290. also published by Harper as "Ludendorff's Own Story, August 1914 – November 1918: The Great War from the Siege of Liège to the Signing of the Armistice as Viewed from the Grand Headquarters of the German Army" OCLC 561160 (original title Meine Kriegserinnerungen, 1914–1918)
- MacMillan, Margaret. The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914. Profile Books. 2013. ISBN 978-0-8129-9470-4.
- MacMillan, Margaret. Peacemakers; Six Months that Changed The World: The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War 2019. John Murray. 2001. ISBN 978-1-5293-2526-3.
- Magliveras, Konstantinos D. Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations: The Law and Practice behind Member States' Expulsion and Suspension of Membership. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 1999. ISBN 978-90-411-1239-2.
- Marble, Sanders. King of Battle: Artillery in World War I. Brill. 2018. ISBN 978-9004305243.
- Marks, Sally. The Myths of Reparations. Central European History. 1978, 11 (3): 231–255. S2CID 144072556. doi:10.1017/S0008938900018707.
- Marks, Sally. Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921. The Journal of Modern History. September 2013, 85 (3): 650–651. S2CID 154166326. doi:10.1086/670825.
- Martel, Gordon. The Origins of the First World War 2016. Routledge. 2003. ISBN 978-1-138-92865-7.
- Martel, Gordon. The Month that Changed the World: July 1914. OUP. 2014. ISBN 978-0-19-966538-9.
- Marshall, S. L. A.; Josephy, Alvin M. The American heritage history of World War I. American Heritage Pub. Co. : Bonanza Books : Distributed by Crown Publishers. 1982. ISBN 978-0-517-38555-5. OCLC 1028047398.
- Mawdsley, Evan. The Russian Civil War. New York: Pegasus Books. 2007. ISBN 978-1-68177-009-3.
- McLellan, Edwin N. The United States Marine Corps in the World War. [26 October 2009]. (原始内容存档于16 September 2018).
- McMeekin, Sean. July 1914: Countdown to War. Icon Books. 2014. ISBN 978-1-84831-657-7.
- McMeekin, Sean. The Ottoman Endgame: War, Revolution and the Making of the Modern Middle East, 1908–1923 2016. Penguin. 2015. ISBN 978-0-7181-9971-5.
- Medlicott, W.N. Bismarck and the Three Emperors' Alliance, 1881–87. Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 1945, 27: 61–83. JSTOR 3678575. S2CID 154285570. doi:10.2307/3678575.
- Meyer, Gerald J. A World Undone: The Story of the Great War 1914 to 1918. Random House. 2006. ISBN 978-0-553-80354-9.
- Millett, Allan Reed; Murray, Williamson. Military Effectiveness. Boston: Allen Unwin. 1988. ISBN 978-0-04-445053-5. OCLC 220072268.
- Mitrasca, Marcel. Moldova: A Romanian Province Under Russian Rule: Diplomatic History from the Archives of the Great Powers. Algora Publishing. 2007. ISBN 978-0875861845.
- Moll, Kendall D; Luebbert, Gregory M. Arms Race and Military Expenditure Models: A Review. The Journal of Conflict Resolution. 1980, 24 (1): 153–185. JSTOR 173938. S2CID 155405415. doi:10.1177/002200278002400107.
- Morton, Desmond. Silent Battle: Canadian Prisoners of War in Germany, 1914–1919. Toronto: Lester Publishing. 1992. ISBN 978-1-895555-17-2. OCLC 29565680.
- Mosier, John. Germany and the Development of Combined Arms Tactics. Myth of the Great War: How the Germans Won the Battles and How the Americans Saved the Allies. New York: Harper Collins. 2001. ISBN 978-0-06-019676-9.
- Muller, Jerry Z. Us and Them – The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism. Foreign Affairs (Council on Foreign Relations). March–April 2008 [30 December 2008]. (原始内容存档于23 June 2015).
- Neiberg, Michael S. Fighting the Great War: A Global History. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 2005. ISBN 978-0-674-01696-5. OCLC 56592292.
- Nicholson, Gerald W.L. Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1919: Official History of the Canadian Army in the First World War 1st. Ottawa: Queens Printer and Controller of Stationery. 1962. OCLC 2317262. (原始内容存档于16 May 2007).
- Noakes, Lucy. Women in the British Army: War and the Gentle Sex, 1907–1948. Routledge. 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-39056-9.
- Northedge, F.S. The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946. New York: Holmes & Meier. 1986. ISBN 978-0-7185-1316-0.
- Painter, David S. Oil and the American Century. The Journal of American History. 2012, 99 (1): 24–39. doi:10.1093/jahist/jas073.
- Părean, Ioan, Lt Colonel. Soldați ai României Mari. Din prizonieratul rusesc în Corpul Voluntarilor transilvăneni și bucovineni [Soldiers of Greater Romania; from Russian captivity to the Transylvanian and Bucovina Volunteer Corps] (PDF). Romanian Army Academy Journal. 2002, 3–4 (27–28): 1–5. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Phillimore, George Grenville; Bellot, Hugh H.L. Treatment of Prisoners of War. Transactions of the Grotius Society. 1919, 5: 47–64. OCLC 43267276.
- Pitt, Barrie. 1918: The Last Act. Barnsley: Pen and Sword. 2003. ISBN 978-0-85052-974-6. OCLC 56468232.
- Porras-Gallo, M.; Davis, R.A. (编). The Spanish Influenza Pandemic of 1918–1919: Perspectives from the Iberian Peninsula and the Americas. Rochester Studies in Medical History 30. University of Rochester Press. 2014 [9 November 2020]. ISBN 978-1-58046-496-3. (原始内容存档于22 January 2021) –通过Google Books.
- Price, Alfred. Aircraft versus Submarine: the Evolution of the Anti-submarine Aircraft, 1912 to 1980. London: Jane's Publishing. 1980. ISBN 978-0-7106-0008-0. OCLC 10324173. Deals with technical developments, including the first dipping hydrophones
- Raudzens, George. War-Winning Weapons: The Measurement of Technological Determinism in Military History. The Journal of Military History. October 1990, 54 (4): 403–434. JSTOR 1986064. doi:10.2307/1986064.
- Rickard, J. Erich von Ludendorff(原文如此), 1865–1937, German General. Military History Encyclopedia on the Web. 5 March 2001 [6 February 2008]. (原始内容存档于10 January 2008).
- Rickard, J. The Ludendorff Offensives, 21 March–18 July 1918. historyofwar.org. 27 August 2007 [12 September 2018]. (原始内容存档于10 October 2017).
- Roden, Mike. The Lost Generation – myth and reality. Aftermath – when the Boys Came Home. [13 April 2022].
- Rothschild, Joseph. East-Central Europe between the Two World Wars. University of Washington Press. 1975. ISBN 978-0295953502.
- Saadi, Abdul-Ilah. Dreaming of Greater Syria. Al Jazeera. 12 February 2009 [14 August 2014]. (原始内容存档于13 May 2011).
- Sachar, Howard Morley. The emergence of the Middle East, 1914–1924. Allen Lane. 1970. ISBN 978-0-7139-0158-0. OCLC 153103197.
- Salibi, Kamal Suleiman. How it all began – A concise history of Lebanon. A House of Many Mansions – the history of Lebanon reconsidered. I.B. Tauris. 1993 [11 March 2008]. ISBN 978-1-85043-091-9. OCLC 224705916. (原始内容存档于3 April 2017).
- Schindler, J. Steamrollered in Galicia: The Austro-Hungarian Army and the Brusilov Offensive, 1916. War in History. 2003, 10 (1): 27–59. S2CID 143618581. doi:10.1191/0968344503wh260oa.
- Schindler, John R. Disaster on the Drina: The Austro-Hungarian Army in Serbia, 1914. War in History. 2002, 9 (2): 159–195. S2CID 145488166. doi:10.1191/0968344502wh250oa.
- Schreiber, Shane B. Shock Army of the British Empire: The Canadian Corps in the Last 100 Days of the Great War 2004. Vanwell. 1977. ISBN 978-1-55125-096-0.
- Șerban, Ioan I. Din activitatea desfășurată în Vechiul Regat de voluntarii și refugiații ardeleni și bucovineni în slujba idealului național [Nationalist activity in the Kingdom of Romania by Transylvanian and Bucovina volunteers and refugees]. Annales Universitatis Apulensis. 1997, (37): 101–111. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Șerban, Ioan I. Constituirea celui de-al doilea corp al voluntarilor români din Rusia – august 1918 [Establishment of the second body of Romanian volunteers in Russia – August 1918]. Apulum. 2000, (37): 153–164. 已忽略未知参数
|lang=
(建议使用|language=
) (帮助) - Shanafelt, Gary W. The secret enemy: Austria-Hungary and the German alliance, 1914–1918. East European Monographs. 1985. ISBN 978-0-88033-080-0.
- Shapiro, Fred R.; Epstein, Joseph. The Yale Book of Quotations. Yale University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-300-10798-2.
- Sheffield, Gary. Forgotten Victory. Review. 2002. ISBN 978-0-7472-7157-4.
- Smith, David James. One Morning in Sarajevo. Hachette UK. 2010. ISBN 978-0-297-85608-5.
He was photographed on the way to the station and the photograph has been reproduced many times in books and articles, claiming to depict the arrest of Gavrilo Princip. But there is no photograph of Gavro's arrest—this photograph shows the arrest of Behr.
- Souter, Gavin. Lion & Kangaroo: the initiation of Australia. Melbourne: Text Publishing. 2000. OCLC 222801639.
- Smele, Jonathan. War and Revolution in Russia 1914–1921. World Wars in-depth. BBC. [12 November 2009]. (原始内容存档于23 October 2011).
- Speed, Richard B, III. Prisoners, Diplomats and the Great War: A Study in the Diplomacy of Captivity. New York: Greenwood Press. 1990. ISBN 978-0-313-26729-1. OCLC 20694547.
- Spreeuwenberg, P. Reassessing the Global Mortality Burden of the 1918 Influenza Pandemic.. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2018, 187 (12): 2561–2567. PMC 7314216 . PMID 30202996. doi:10.1093/aje/kwy191.
- Stevenson, David. The First World War and International Politics. Oxford University Press. 1988. ISBN 0-19-873049-7.
- Stevenson, David. Armaments and the Coming of War: Europe, 1904–1914. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-19-820208-0. OCLC 33079190.
- Stevenson, David. Cataclysm: The First World War as Political Tragedy. New York: Basic Books. 2004: 560pp. ISBN 978-0-465-08184-4. OCLC 54001282.
- Stevenson, David. 1914–1918: The History of the First World War. Penguin. 2012. ISBN 978-0-7181-9795-7.
- Stevenson, David. Mahnken, Thomas , 编. Land armaments in Europe, 1866–1914 in Arms Races in International Politics: From the Nineteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Oxford University Press. 2016. ISBN 978-0-19-873526-7.
- Stone, David. The Kaiser's Army: The German Army in World War One. Conway. 2014. ISBN 978-1-84486-292-4.
- Strachan, Hew. The First World War: Volume I: To Arms. New York: Viking. 2003. ISBN 978-0-670-03295-2. OCLC 53075929.
- Taliaferro, William Hay. Medicine and the War. 1972. ISBN 978-0-8369-2629-3. 已忽略未知参数
|orig-date=
(帮助) - Taylor, Alan John Percivale. The First World War and its aftermath, 1914–1919. Folio Society. 1998. OCLC 49988231.
- Taylor, John M. Audacious Cruise of the Emden. The Quarterly Journal of Military History. Summer 2007, 19 (4): 38–47 [5 July 2021]. ISSN 0899-3718. (原始内容存档于14 August 2021).
- Terraine, John. Ordeal of Victory. J.B. Lippincott. 1963. ISBN 978-0-09-068120-4. OCLC 1345833.
- Thompson, Mark. The White War: Life and Death on the Italian Front, 1915-1919. Faber & Faber. 2009. ISBN 978-0571223336.
- Todman, Dan. The Great War: Myth and Memory. A & C Black. 2005. ISBN 978-0-8264-6728-7.
- Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945. Stanford University Press. 2001 [4 December 2013]. ISBN 978-0-8047-7924-1. (原始内容存档于4 January 2014).
- Torrie, Glenn E. Romania's Entry into the First World War: The Problem of Strategy (PDF). Emporia State Research Studies (Emporia State University). 1978, 26 (4): 7–8.
- Tschanz, David W. Typhus fever on the Eastern front in World War I. Montana State University. [12 November 2009]. (原始内容存档于11 June 2010).
- Tuchman, Barbara Wertheim. The Zimmermann Telegram 2nd. New York: Macmillan. 1966. ISBN 978-0-02-620320-3. OCLC 233392415.
- Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla Mary. Encyclopedia of World War I. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. 2005. ISBN 978-1-85109-420-2. OCLC 61247250.
- Tucker, Spencer C.; Wood, Laura Matysek; Murphy, Justin D. The European powers in the First World War: an encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. 1999 [6 June 2020]. ISBN 978-0-8153-3351-7. (原始内容存档于1 August 2020).
- Turner, L.F.C. The Russian Mobilization in 1914. Journal of Contemporary History. 1968, 3 (1): 65–88. JSTOR 259967. S2CID 161629020. doi:10.1177/002200946800300104.
- Velikonja, Mitja. Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Texas A&M University Press. 2003: 141. ISBN 978-1-58544-226-3.
- von der Porten, Edward P. German Navy in World War II. New York: T.Y. Crowell. 1969. ISBN 978-0-213-17961-8. OCLC 164543865.
- Westwell, Ian. World War I Day by Day. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing. 2004: 192pp. ISBN 978-0-7603-1937-6. OCLC 57533366.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John W. Brest-Litovsk:The forgotten peace. Macmillan. 1938.
- Williams, Rachel. Dual Threat: The Spanish Influenza and World War I (学位论文). University of Tennessee. 2014 [17 February 2022]. (原始内容存档于29 October 2021).
- Willmott, H.P. World War I. Dorling Kindersley. 2003. ISBN 978-0-7894-9627-0. OCLC 52541937.
- Winter, Denis. The First of the Few: Fighter Pilots of the First World War. Penguin. 1983. ISBN 978-0-14-005256-5.
- Winter, Jay (编). The Cambridge History of the First World War 2016. Cambridge University Press. 2014. ISBN 978-1-316-60066-5.
- Wohl, Robert. The Generation of 1914 3rd. Harvard University Press. 1979. ISBN 978-0-674-34466-2.
- Zeldin, Theodore. France, 1848–1945: Volume II: Intellect, Taste, and Anxiety 1986. Clarendon Press. 1977. ISBN 978-0-19-822125-8.
- Zieger, Robert H. America's Great War: World War I and the American experience. Rowman & Littlefield. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8476-9645-1.
- Zuber, Terence. Inventing the Schlieffen Plan: German War Planning 1871–1914 2014. OUP. 2011. ISBN 978-0-19-871805-5.